Internal combustion engine Essay Example for Free

Internal combustion engine EssayThere is a big debate nigh the future of the elevator car industry. The new big topic is electric car cars. Ads emphasize how much less contamination these cars put out, further the truth is that many people do non realize the downside of these cars. For instance, did you know that average battery embody for electric cars is between $18,000 and $20,000? Also, these cars produce significant more amounts of atomic number 16 dioxide compared to traditional internal combustion engines, and what rough the factories that burn billions of wads of coal all(prenominal)day to produce electricity to charge these cars?Yes, these cars do produce little carbon dioxide directly, but the main source of defilement comes indirectly from the power plants that power these cars. electric cars are not the best environmental solution in the long run be nominate they still cause taint while charging and producing them, there is no safe place to dispose of t he batteries, and they are extremely expensive (Hogan). The first major issue with electric cars is that the process of manufacturing and charging these cars produces billions of tons of carbon dioxide emissions.The EPAs research shows that for an average size car, electricitys emissions are about three times higher than the emissions of gasoline (Inside humor Staff). Electric cars do not produce much pollution directly. Instead the pollution is rather created at the source of the energy, power plants. Pollution is caused when manufacturing and producing these cars too. In addition, larger amounts of pollution are produced while mining for the metals found in the new qualitys of batteries. All of the mining machines and vehicles are powered from fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, and diesel fuels.A great amount of energy is lost in the process of transmitting the electricity from the power source to your car. Also, electric cars emit significantly higher amounts of sulfur dioxi de into the air compared to internal-combustion engines. Sulfur dioxide is the main component that causes acid rain. astringent rain can cause damage to lakes, streams, forests, car paints, copper, stone, and other building materials. Acid rain soaks into the soil and roots of plants, and causes slowed growth, and loss of leaves or take aimles.In the Great Smoky Mountains, acid rain has actually killed one-hundred or more of the Frazier Fir and Red prettify trees (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency). Furthermore, in the Northeastern United States. , such as in the Kesterson Reservoir in the San Joaquin Valley, acid rain caused hundreds of fish populations to vanish from lakes (Davis). Acid rain can contaminate our own drinking water without us even knowing it it tastes, and looks like regular water When sulfur dioxide is inhaled, it can cause damage to your heart and lungs, causing disorders such as bronchitis and asthma (National Parks Service).Additionally, battery disposal is a key issue. The average life of this new type of batteries is twenty-five to thirty thousand miles before they provide take on to be replaced. If electric cars are going to be a thing of the future, there will become an excess of batteries in landfills and other disposal sites. Presently, landfills are not designed to handle the millions of batteries that would need to be disposed of if millions of people were driving electric cars. If these batteries are not properly disposed of, toxic chemicals could leak into the environment.Also, recycling these lithium-ion batteries doesnt appear to be in the future anywhere soon. The cost of collecting, organizing, and merchant vessels these metals to a recycler far outweighs the value of the scrapped material, so for the time being, virtually of these metals will be thrown away in landfills and junkyards (Mitchell). Another obstacle with these materials being tossed in landfills is the possibility of corrosive chemicals leaking into streams, rivers, and lakes. The process of refining metals for these batteries likewise releases pollutants into the environment.Once the refiner gets what metal they need from the ore, they discard the other materials into the nearby ecosystems. When this happens, our drinking water could be contaminated, and it could also damage, or kill the wildlife in that area (Bacher). Lastly, these cars are extremely expensive. Because the batteries only last for about a hundred miles, this means you would be possessed of to charge them about three times for every full tank of gas that you would normally buy. Also, with this low charge capacity, it would be virtually impossible to take long trips.You would have to stop frequently to charge the battery, which takes about nine hours to completely charge. This would turn a normal two-hundred mile, four hour drive into at least a thirteen hour trip, assuming that you could find an open charging station Another reason that these cars are so expe nsive is that you have to replace the battery in your car about every twenty-five to thirty thousand miles. This is a very costly expense, especially since each new battery is about 18 to twenty thousand dollarsThis is $80,000 for batteries alone if you drive 100,000 miles in your car The hurt of charging an electric car is less than what a full tank of gas would cost you, but you end up paying for it in the long run when you have to replace the battery. Electric cars are expensive from the start. The average retail price of most electric cars is in the thirty to forty thousand dollar range. Most middle class individuals cannot afford to pay this price for this new technology, which is why this will not be the best economical solution in the long run.These cost projections assume that both the car and the battery work correctly for the duration of their lives, but what if the battery breaks, or stops working, forcing you to replace it? The technology is new and underdeveloped, wh ich means that there might still be some problems or bugs that the designers havent had a chance to fix. Thats $20,000 right there that you would have to pay in addition to the purchase price. Thats close to fractional of what you originally paid for the car Since these cars are less, there are fewer mechanicals that are qualified to work or operate on them, so the price of operation will be very high.Electric cars were released around 2010, which means there hasnt even been enough time for a mechanic to get a four-year degree in operating on electric cars (Hogan). The problem with automobile pollution definitely needs to be addressed and solved, but fully-electric cars are not the best solution. They are made out to be better than they actually are, and they definitely have major disadvantages. First of all, they will have to become a lot cheaper for people to be able to afford them. The general public cannot afford to pay $20,000 for a new battery every 30,000 miles.Designers al so need to find a way to lengthen the range of these cars. With only a 100 mile range, it is just not practical for most people. In addition, these cars still produce pollution, just not directly. All of the pollution is created indirectly, at coal-burning electricity power plants. Another unaddressed issue is that these cars emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, which is what combines with water to become acid rain. Lastly, there is no good place to dispose of batteries.If millions of people are going to be driving these cars, there will be tons of toxic batteries in landfills and disposal sites, which can cause harm to the wildlife, and the surrounding environment. If you accidentally miscalculate the charge left in your car, you will be stuck. Unlike a gas-powered vehicle, you cannot simply fill up your car with a gas can. With electric cars, there is no way to fill the energy in your car on the side of the road. The fully-electric car was a good idea, but in the long run, it is not the best answer.The automobile companies need to continue to improve internal combustion engines to decrease their carbon dioxide emissions. Works Cited Cultrona, R. L. Pros and Cons of Electric Cars. 1999-2012. 18 March 2012. . Davis, Jay. Marine Bio. 1998-2012. 18 March 2012. . Hogan, Micheal C. The Encyclopedia of Earth. 21 February 2012. 18 March 2012. . Mitchell, Robert L. Computer World. 22 August 2006. 18 March 2012. . National Parks Service. 28 October 2010. 18 March 2012 . Staff, Solve Climate. Inside Climate News. 1 April 2010. 18 March 2012. . U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 8 June 2007. 18 March 2012. .

Agriculture in the Amazon Rainforest Essay Example for Free

Agriculture in the Amazon Rain woodwind EssayThroughout a hundred centuries people mystify worked unattackable to sustain productive agriculture and dense human populations. Certain forms of agriculture ar possible, and should be considered sustainable, for the economic development of tropical rainforests. For thousands of years humans have created a disturbance in the rainforests by creating areas of concentrated diversity of species within the solid groundscape. The Indigenous people of the Amazon fostered palm forests, groves of Brazil nuts and fruit trees, and vine forests shape up ancient Amazonian settlements.Environmentalists could argue that rainforests deal be saved by through the restriction of economic growth, but it is vital to realize that the local communities will non approve parks and reserves, as it is in their interest to conserve the rainforest. The shifted cultivator who forces small farmers into the forest to begin new farmlands causes about 60% of d eforestation in Amazon. Researchers have warned if we continue to change the use of the land it can affect the regions climate, and the absorption of carbon dioxide in the Amazon.By converting forests into cropland there is a pronounced ecological and climate impact than land conversions because it involves the complete removal of land biomass, including tree trunks, stumps and woody roots. (Mike Bettwy of NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center). A get around approach to addressing the increasing problem of deforestation in the Amazon is to follow the methods that have been used by indigenous forest dwellers for thousands of years. Many cleared forest areas used for agriculture can be salvaged by cultivation techniques.Annual crops, pasture land, are some examples of what can be done to increase rural productivity and to reduce the destruction in many rainforests. Effects of human population on the Ecosystem Over 20% of the Amazon Rainforest has been destroyed, in increment to the Am azon Rainforest is gone forever. Unfortunately with human population, the Amazon Rainforest has had effects with loss and harm to the population of wild species. A lot of the land is being clear for cattle ranches, mining operations, logging and subsistence agriculture.According to Raintree (1996) Experts estimates that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation. That equates to 50,000 species a year. As the rainforest species disappear, so do many possible cures for life-threatening diseases. Currently, 121 prescription drugs sold worldwide come from plant-derived sources. While 25% of Western pharmaceuticals are derived from rainforest ingredients, less that 1% of these tropical trees and plants have been tested by scientists.If this was happening in 1996, we can only imagine that in 2012 it is so very much worst. Sustainability and Conservation Overpopulation causes many problems to the Amazon rainforest. More than 20% of Earths oxygen is produced in this area. As the area is reduced much carbon dioxide will be put up the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is important to this issue because plants need it to give off oxygen, which humans need to survive, not only for oxygen but also for food and feed for out health.Carbon dioxide is not necessarily a bad thing unless a large amount pollutes the air we need to breathe. Not only can overpopulation of the Amazon affect the air we breathe, but it will also affect the wildlife, water, and food we need to survive. There are over 200 species of trees in on hectare of the Amazon. This is important because there are so many possible cures for life threatening diseases. The Amazon is home to mare species of plants and animals than any other terrestrial ecosystem on the planet. Some interesting animals live in the Amazon and a lot of them are very rare.For example, a new species of freshwater fish, brown-spider monkey and a toad called cowboy frog, were some of the amazing animals discovered in the Amazon. The animals found in the Amazon are endless. It is amazing the new discoveries that have happened over the years and the new ones to come. The animals in the Amazon have live there longer that humans have lived on this planet. The Amazon is one of the largest natural resources and with overpopulation more and more rainforest are becoming non-existent.

Discrimination for Terrorism Offence Suspects

Discrimination for nemesisism Offence SuspectsTitle The representative for discriminatory treatment of persons suspected of terrorism offences- a research count to test the adequacy of the current procedural safeguards that ar in place in the UK to protect terror suspects from abuses of cod accomplish and breaches of human rights edict.AbstractThis w only topic provides a literature canvass of the latest research which has been conducted in the UK on the ascribable operate rights of terror suspects, with a view to determining (i) how susceptible such suspects ar, in practice, to abuse of their legitimate rights by the Police, trade protection Services and Criminal Justice System and, (ii) to what extent it is justified to introduce a simulation of heighten procedural protective covering to mitigate their inherent vulnerabilities.The Structure of the PaperIn chapter 1 of this paper, the concept, legal root word and legal nature of due adjoin kick for be exami ned. In particular, the reference volition examine the historical development of the legal principle, its nature as a procedural safeguard and its legal hindquarters as a constitutive(a) and/or human right.In chapter 2 of this paper, the author will examine the fell justice mechanisms in place to peck with terror suspects, from initial arrest to lamentable prosecution, with a view to determining the extent to which terror suspects ar (potentially) more vulner competent to the perils of procedural undue help, deep d sustain the poisonous justice ashes, than non-terror suspects.In chapter 3 of this paper, the author will identify those risk factors which atomic number 18 unavoidable, such as the national security and different requirements for important opacity and those which atomic number 18 historically reported but which prolong no direct relationship with the nature of the crime creation investigated.In chapter 4 of this paper, the author will critically evalu ate the adequacy of the existing procedural safeguards which are in place to protect terror suspects from abuse of due work.In chapter 5 of this paper, the author will (tentatively) propose a framework of enhanced procedural safeguards specifically designed to protect terror suspects from abuses of due forge.Initial TerminologyTerror suspect- A person who has been arrested on suspicion of organism culpable of a criminal offence which pertains to terrorist activity.Non-terror suspect- A person who has been arrested on suspicion of cosmos guilty of a criminal offence, unrelated to terrorism.Due puzzle out- Due process of law.Undue process- This phrase refers to an instance where due process has not been adhered to, i.e. an abuse of due process.In this chapter, the concept, legal basis and legal nature of due process will be examined. In particular, solves to the chase nouss will be provided1. What are the origins of due process in England and Wales?2. What is due process?3. Wh at are the philosophic and/or theoretical justifications for the existence of due process?4. What is the legal basis for the existence of due process?5. Can due process be regarded as being constitutional, at law? Why is this question relevant to the current debate?1. What are the origins of due process in England and Wales?It is beyond the scope of this paper to engage in an in-depth historical analysis of the development of the concept of due process. However, it is important that we glean an concord of the age of the concept, so that we can appropriately contextualize its importance within the debates of this paper. For this reason, and out of interest, the author will provide a (very) brief summary of the origins of due process in EnglandIn the United poofdom, the concept of due process has its origins in Chapter 9 of the Magna Carta of 12151, which stated No muster out man shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlaw ed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor escape upon him, except by the lawful judgement of his peers or by the law of the land.Analysts arrest fucussed on varying elements of this passage from which to derive the concept of due process. Galligan (2006) p171 provides a useful summary of the main analyses The important part is the exception, especially the words by the law of the land (legem terrae). On first reading it might come out that the significant words are judgement of his peers, since they suggest a foundation for trial by jury. Jury trials, however are a long mien into the future and have different origins. The more likely meaning of the expression judgement of his peers is the right of a noble to be judged by his agrees, which in work carries most suggestion of a fair trial. This certainly has procedural connotations, but the search for a fuller sense of due process is usually say at the words the law of the land That idea is vague e nough to support different meanings, and certainly it is not improbable to suggest, as some have, that it contains at least the kernel of due process.It is interesting to note that the phrase due process or, more correctly stated, due process of law, was not coined until 1354, in King Edward III of Englands statutory rendition of the Magna Carta2, which stated No man of what state or condition he be, shall be impersonate out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to response by due process of law.3 permit us now turn to consider what is mean by due process of the law.2. What is due process?In the United Kingdom, due process refers to the procedural concept that any person, who is in a position where one or more of his or her protected interests are being deprived4, is entitled to be treated fairly by the social occasion of the law to ensure that the deprivation in question is justified. There are six broad aspects of proced ural due process which are often cited (1) Notice (2) Hearing (3) Impartiality (4) Counsel (5) Evidence and, (6) Decision. permit us discuss each of these procedural requirements in turn(1) NoticeUnder procedural due process, an individual is entitled to be given fair to middling notice of any likely criminal law proceedings in which he or she will be summoned as a suspect. This is to give the defendant sufficient time to seek advice in regard to his or her available legal options.(2) HearingUnder this aspect of procedural due fairness, before the property or the liberty of an individual is deprived from him or her, he or she is entitled to demand a give awaying at which his or her case will be heard and a close reached in regard to whether the prospective deprivation is justified. Galligan (1996) p349-350 provides a succinct description of the main rightfulnesss of upholding the hearing principle A virtue of the hearing principle is that it contributes to break out decisio ns and actions, amend that is, in the sense that the facts are decided accurately, the law applied properly, and any discretionary judgements reasonably made. This is so for a number of reasons. One is that the person whose situation is under(a) scrutiny, whose past actions or present circumstances are in issue, will often be able to provide information about the situation which is not otherwise easily available Another reason is that the person moveed by a decision whitethorn be able to raise other considerations, apart from purely factual matters, which help to shape the decision and perhaps, in that substance, contribute to a better outcome.(3) ImpartialityThis aspect of procedural due process states that the judiciary of decision-makers in a legal hearing must be made up of persons who are wholly impartial towards the defendant, i.e. they must not have any predispositions towards the defendant. The purpose of this procedural requirement is to ensure that any decisions reach ed by a hearing tribunal are found upon the facts at hand rather than any extraneous and/or irrelevant considerations. Where for example, a decision-maker has had previous personal or business relations with the defendant, then he or she should, in the interests of procedural due process, resign himself from the hearing of that defendants case, as he cannot be considered impartial. There are many other examples of circumstances under which a decision-maker might not be deemed impartial, but the full general rule is that the impartiality of a decision-maker who is pre-disposed towards a defendant prior to the criminal hearing being held must be considered compromised.(4) CounselUnder the doctrine of procedural due process, a defendant is entitled to be given free access to legal manufactureation if he or she is unable to afford or unwilling to provide his or her own representation. The rationale for this aspect of procedural due process is self-evident It would be grossly unfair t o allow a defendants property or liberty to be deprived from him or her without being able to present his or her defense force in its best light and most good legal form- without legal representation it is likely that a defendant will be unable to meet this requirement of fairness.(5) EvidenceIn order to ensure that a defendant is able to present the most effective case at a criminal hearing, it is not only imperative that he or she has access to all of the evidence that the prosecution will be seeking to rely upon but likewise imperative that he or she or his or her legal representatives are given an opportunity to conduct their own investigations to acquire evidence which will assist the case for the defence. For one example, a defendant may wish to instruct the services of an expert witness to confute the accuracy of DNA tests which were conducted by the police on behalf of the prosecuting authority. An eloquent summary of this procedural requirement has been provided by the Pennsylvania General Assembly (2006) p45 Especially in cases where a decision rests on questions of fact, it may be necessary to provide an individual not only with the ability to confront and cross-examine adverse witnesses, but also the opportunity for discovery, i.e., investigation and accumulating evidence, in order to give him or her a chance to show that the facts upon which the proposed deprivation is based are untrue.(6) DecisionThis aspect of procedural due process demands that upon reaching a decision which adversely affects a defendant, for example a decision depriving him or her of his or her property and/or liberty, the decision-making clay must not only provide the reasoning for their decision (the ratio descendi) but must identify which pieces of evidence they relied upon to reach their final conclusions.3. What are the philosophical and/or theoretical justifications for the existence of due process?The importance of the existence of consistent procedures to any lega l system cannot be underestimated. As Galligan (1996) p5 notes Without procedures, law and legal institutions would fail in their purposes. And since law is both necessary and desirable in achieving social goals, procedures are also necessary and must be seen as equal partners in that enterprise. For whatever the context, whether the judicial trial, the administrative decision, or any other form of legal process, procedures are necessary to ensure that the issue is channelled to its right conclusion. Whether the reject is to apply a legal standard to the facts, to exercise discretion according to the correct matters, or to settle a dispute by bringing the parties together, procedures have a vital part to play. Let us explore some of these contentions in more position.One of the natural theoretical bases for the assertence of maintaining due process within a legal system is the Rule of Law. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to engage with the multitude of different defin itions and propositions which have been promulgated under the umbrella of this phrase, it should be noted that one of the basic (and universal) tenets of the Rule of Law is that individual freedoms and liberties should be protected from the States abuse of its constitutional powers. As Urabe (1990) p61 notes The core of the Rule of Law, which has been supported consistently as a fundamental principle of the English and American constitutions, is that governmental power be jump-start strictly by law in order to protect individual freedom or liberty. The law exists to protect individual rights and liberties both in kernel and procedure.Lon Fullers understanding of the Rule of Law provides some further insight into the theoretical justifications for due process. As Raitio (1003) p143 notes Fuller required that laws should be prospective in application, they should be published and they should comprise clear general rules, which are neither too individualized nor too general and vague . There should be fair constancy and consistency among laws, i.e. laws should not be changing all the time, they must not contradict each other and they must not require citizens to do the impossible. The conduct of legal officials has to be congruent with the laws, as laid down, which in turn requires that the officials owe the alike(p) respect to the same laws as the citizens.5 On this basis, one of the fundamental justifications for the existence of due process is to ensure legal certainty in the way that the procedure of the law is applied and followed. By ensuring that procedure remains consistent, not only can individuals be more certain that they are receiving a fair trial, for example, but they will be more sensible when their rights are being infringed, and can take the necessary remedial actions, accordingly.Before we move on to examine the various legal bases for modern due process, a few words should be said about the concept of fairness and why it is important to ensu re that the law is applied via fair procedures. While the answer to this question cannot seem anything other than intuitive, it is nevertheless important to break the question down and answer it from a jurisprudential point of view- after all, if we cannot support this fundamental assumption through reason and logic, then it will be difficult later in this paper to support the introduction of a discriminatory framework of enhanced legal protection for terror suspects on the basis that the current regime is, in places, unfair.Embedded within the concept of fairness is the concept of justice. It is beyond the scope of this paper to engage with the full range of conceptualizations of justice that have been promoted by the various authors in this field. However, it should be noted that present in every conceptualization of justice are the concepts of guilty and not-guilty, and it is with these concepts that this author would like now to engage.As we have seen throughout this section, on e of the main aims of due process is to ensure that an individual whos property or liberty is under threat (as a result of legal action being brought against him), is able to have access to all the resources he requires to be able to present his defence to a fair and impartial tribunal, who will make a decision based upon the evidence presented and the relevant applicable laws. One might be forgiven for thinking that the only aim of due process in this context is to protect the individual. However, this is not the case It is in the interests of society as a whole, and citizens as a collective, that justice be achieved in each and every case. If the law is seen as being applied within a forum which is unjust, then citizens (as a group) will lose respect for the law, and may engage in criminal activities which otherwise they may have desisted from.In order to maintain the public respect for the law, it is important that public scandals involving abuses of due process are kept to a mi nimal, and the best way to avoid such scandals is to try and ensure that instances of such abuse are kept to a minimum6. In light of the fact that property and liberty are held as being of such high value within our society, it is also important to ensure that these are only taken away from a defendant where there is no reasonable doubt that the criminal justice system is justified in so depriving that person. As Sir William Blackstone famously stated in 1765 It is better to let ten guilty men go free than to punish one innocent man. It is for this reason that the burden of proof in criminal law proceedings has been set so high, and also why the principle of homo praesumitur bonus donec probetur malus7 has been referred to as the golden thread of the criminal law passim the web of the English criminal law one golden thread is always to be seenthat it is the duty of the prosecution to prove the prisoners guilt subject to what I have already said as to the defence of insanity and sub ject also to any statutory exception.8Stevens (2006) summarizes this debate and the benefits of the current position in the following terms Which is fairer, (a) a system of rules so strict that even a few innocent people get unfairly punished or, (b) a system not so strict that even a few guilty people go unfairly unpunished? Due process of law holds that the southward answer is more correct, for many reasons. On a practical level, theres less of a danger to the whole legal system. If your system is convicting a few innocent, chances are its railroading many of the guilty, so youve got two problems on your hands those who are falsely imprisoned and those who have a stronger habeas corpus claim. If your system is letting a few guilty slip through, chances are that those lucky evil-doers might change their ways, or in any case, law enforcement or informal methods of social gibe can pick up the slack.While this transmission line has instant intuitive appeal, it must be noted that t he enquiries involved in reaching, for example, Blackstones ratio, require no investigation into the nature of the crimes that the guilty have been unfairly acquitted of. If, for example, the 10 criminals are guilty of conspiracy to commit mass genocide and also take deep faith-based motivations which are unlikely to be quashed by a lucky escape, then is it really justifiable to acquit these criminals in favour of protect the property and/or liberty of one innocent person? This debate strikes at the very heart of the matter with which this paper is primarily concerned namely, whether or not it is fair to allow the due process rights of terror suspects to be abused and whether or not special measures ought to be introduced to protect these individuals, who (it must be remembered) have yet to be found guilty by a fair and impartial Court of law of any criminal law offences.Let us reserve judgement on these difficult questions until later in this paper, when we have had a chance to fu lly examine the risks that terror suspects face at the hands of the State, and the risks that the State potentially faces at the hands of terror suspects.4. What is the legal basis for the existence of due process?The legal sources for procedural due process are various. Some are specific, in that they prescribe a certain procedure to be applied within a certain set of circumstances9 and, some are general, in that they provide what might be described as broad yet fundamental human rights.Let us commence with an interrogative of one of the most commonly cited legal sources for a general right to due process namely, Article 6 of the European Convention on humane Rights, as enshrined into UK law by the kind-hearted Rights stage 1998.Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights purports to provide the human right to a fair trial. In order to understand the scope and limits of this right, let us commence with an examination of the wording of this Article. Article 6 states1. I n the design of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal get off against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. Judgment shall be pronounced publicly but the press and public may be excluded from all or part of the trial in the interest of morals, public order or national security in a democratic society, where the interests of juveniles or the protection of the private life of the parties so require, or to the extent strictly necessary in the opinion of the court in special circumstances where publicity would outrage the interests of justice. 2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law. 3. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights (a) to be informed promptly, in a language which he understands and in detail, of the nature and cause of the accusation against him (b) to have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence (c) to defend himself in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing or, if he has not sufficient means to pay for legal assistance, to be given it free when the interests of justice so require (d) to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him (e) to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.The words and phrases which have been highlighted above represent those elements of Article 6 which provide a legal basis for one or more aspects of procedural due process. The majority of these have been discussed in detail earlier in this Chapter For example, the right to notice10, the right to a hearing11, the right to an impartial tribunal12, the right to counsel13, the right to examine the evidence against him and perform his own in vestigations14, the right to hear the ratio descendi of the decision handed down against him15 and the right to enjoy the benefits of the doctrine of homo praesumitur bonus donec probetur malus16.As we can see, Article 6 provides a general legal basis for each of the aspects of procedural due process which we have identified earlier in this paper. That having been said, this is not the only legal source which provides such a basis. For example, many preps of the Police and Criminal Evidence telephone number 1984 provide similar rules of due process17.It should also be noted that there are common law sources for some of the rights of due process. For example, there is a common law right to silence which is derived from the principle of homo praesumitur bonus donec probetur malus if a person is innocent until proven guilty and there is insufficient evidence to satisfy the criminal law burden of proof requirements, then it is unacceptable to insist that a defendant incriminates himse lf or faces a criminal law penalty. This right still exists in English common law, but has been somewhat compromised by the mandate of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 which now allows prosecutors to infer meaning from a defendants silence. This legal development has been heavily criticized by authors such as Hammerton (2001), who notes An innocent defendant may fail to answer questions in custody or refuse to testify in court for all sorts of reasons. They may regard the police as corrupt and that answering the questions would give the police information that can be used against them. They may believe that if they answer the questions, they or someone they care about might be put in danger from the people who did commit the crime. In short drawing inferences from a defendants silence in custody or in court involves speculation on the motives behind their silence, not solid reasoning that their silence indicates guilt.5. Can due process be regarded as being constituti onal, at law?The reason that this enquiry has been included within this chapter is to determine to what extent it is legally valid to allow due process to be circumvented via enactment. After all, if it is possible to argue that due process is a fundamental constitutional right, then unless the legislation which provides the legal basis for that right is repealed or modified, then it may be possible to argue that any conflicting non-constitutional legislative provisions are unenforceable.As we have seen in the preceding section of this chapter, one of the legal bases for the right for criminal suspects to enjoy due process is Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. This article has been incorporated into UK law by the Human Rights Act 1998.Section 3(1) of this Act states (1) So far as it is possible to do so, primary legislation and subordinate legislation must be read and given effect in a way which is compatible with the Convention rights. Therefore, where a piece o f legislation purports to allow a criminal suspect/defendants due process rights to be circumvented or abused, if a Court of law is able to interpret that legislation in a way which does not lead to the infringement of that right, then it must do so18. However, where that legislation cannot be so reinterpreted, the only therapeutic available to a Court of Law is the ability to be able to issue a declaration of incompatibility under section 4 of the 1998 Act which states, inter alia (2) If the court is satisfied that the provision is incompatible with a Convention right, it may make a declaration of that incompatibility (4) If the court is satisfied (a) that the provision is incompatible with a Convention right, and (b) that (disregarding any possibility of revocation) the primary legislation concerned prevents removal of the incompatibility, it may make a declaration of that incompatibilityHowever, this amend is really a wolf in sheeps clothing, because section 4(6) of the Human Rights Act 1998 makes it very clear that a declaration of incompatibility (a) does not affect the validity, continuing operation or enforcement of the provision in respect of which it is given and (b) is not stick on the parties to the proceedings in which it is made. This means that a criminal defendant who has had his due process rights abused by the state, in pursuance of legislation which purports to allow that particular abuse, has no form of redress in the domestic help Courts, because even if a declaration of incompatibility is granted, it does not affect the validity, continuing operation or enforcement of the provision in respect of which it is given and, it is not binding on the parties to the proceedings in which it is made.Additionally, a declaration of incompatibility does not place any pressing duty on the Government to re-write the offend legislative provision, so such a declaration will not even ensure that the abuse in question is not repeated in regard to other criminal suspects/ defendants. That having been said the Legislative is usually prompt at remedying legislative provisions which have been declared incompatible. For example in the case of R (on the application of H) v psychic Health Review Tribunal for the North and East London Region The Secretary of the State for Health CA March 2001 EWCA Civ 415 it was held that section 2 of the Mental Health Act 1983 is incompatible with Article 5(4) of the European Convention on Human Rights because it does not require a Mental Health Review Tribunal to discharge a patient where it could not be proven that the detainees mental health warranted detention. The offending provision was repealed in November of that same year by enacting the Mental Health Act 1983 (Remedial Order) 2001.In regard to those legal sources discussed earlier which also provide for certain due process rights, because these sources are not contained within the Human Rights Act, but rather within the common law and primary non-constitutional legislation, these can be repealed or supplanted by the enactment of reverse gear primary legislation.N.B. On a separate note It will be remembered, the controversy which was caused in the United Kingdom when it was discovered that terror suspects were being held without charge in Belmarsh Prison for periods of up to 3 years19. The legal basis for holding prisoners in this way was provided by section 23 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001. However, in 200520, this section of legislation was held to be incompatible with Article 5 of the Human Rights Act 1998 and the European Convention on Human Rights21. These prisoners were subsequently released, their detentions being replaced with Control Orders. In light of the fact that terror suspects no longer face a significant threat from section 23 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, the author of this paper has decided to exclude all further discussion of this source of abuse of due proce ss. While there remains an argument that the imposition of Control Orders on terror suspects also infringe their Article 5 human rights, the author has chosen to exclude discussion of this debate from this paper as this paper is more concerned with abuses of due process suffered while being detained, both pre- and post-charge.In this chapter, we will perform a structures literature review in order to glean a deeper insight into the way that terror suspects in the UK are actually treated by the criminal justice system. From our auxiliary analysis of case studies, interviews and anecdotal evidence, we will seek to provide an answer to the following question To what extent are terror suspects more vulnerable to the risk of procedural undue process, within the criminal justice system, than non-terror suspects.In this Chapter we will refrain from engaging with an analysis of the framework of provisions which have been introduced, primarily under the Terrorism Act 2000, to protect terror suspects from abuses of due process. While this analysis is very important, at this stage, such an analysis would only be able to set off whether or not the current fram

Equipment for Cosmetic Dermatology Clinic

Equipment for Cosmetic Dermatology ClinicA cosmetic dermatology clinic differs from the handed-down dermatology clinic in terms of the emergency of a wide range of equipment to work out various aesthetic procedures. In the past, the only instrument associated with dermatology practice was a magnifying glass. It then progressed to equipments such as Woods lamp, electrocautery, radiofrequency, cryotherapy and phototherapy units. Beyond these tools, the cosmetic dermatologists armamentarium includes various basic and specialized equipments to carry out a multitude of dermatological treatments and cosmetology procedures. (Box 1) In addition to the treatment equipment, photo keep devices argon as well as essential. These devices record the results and changes for analysis and prognosis of the treatments and can actu in all(prenominal)y document the percentile UV damage, wrinkle score etc. The cosmetic clients (internet savvy) argon aware of the equipment role in various procedure s and check for clinics offering facilities with the latest equipment and low downtime.The cosmetic dermatologist not only requisites to be updated about the latest equipments but should also be aware of its focussing and sustainment needs. Poor alimentation leads to financial losses for the physician and compromises on efficacy and safety issues for the patient. This chapter gives a brief compend of equipment instruction and maintenance aspects which would enable the physician to provide safe, legal treatments and sustain the financial aspects of his/ her practice optimally.Box 1 Basic and change equipment in a cosmetic clinicBasic EquipmentMicrodermabraderRadiofrequency and cauteryCryotherapyMesotherapyJet Peel or hydrafacialMicrocurrentElectroporationDermatoscope and photography equipment ( exact in chapter 5)Phototherapy UnitsSpecialised Equipment- LASERS and Light SystemsIntense quiver LightLASER Hair Reduction- Long Pulse Alexandrite, Long Pulsed ND YAG, DiodePigmen tation- Q Switched ND YAGFractional and Ablative LASERSHair Restoration- Low Level Lasers and lights undress Tightening- LASERS and Radiofrequency, Micro needling RadiofrequencyVitiligo and Psoriasis- Excimer lamp and LASERBody contouring- Radiofrequency, cryolipolysis, ultrasound cavitation, low level optical maser therapy,etc.BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENTThe basic requirement from any machine/ equipment is its longevity and optimal usage. This can be achieved by effective equipment management procedures 1 (Box 2)Box 2 Effective equipment management proceduresEquipment PurchaseInstallation requirements (storage and space electrical supply, air-conditioner) pattern run Protocolshomework of the staffQuality control checks (cleaning, safety devices, consumables, regular inspections)Maintenance and servicing ( periodic, Preventive, Annual )Equipment/ Accessories fittingEquipment PurchaseThe following checklist should be kept in mind during purchase of the equipment. T his helps to trouble shoot maintenance issues effectively. eer buy from a certified company or a certified official bargainer declare with the dealer for skilled technicians for installation and troubleshootingSign the maintenance contract with the company (No machine is zero maintenance)Establish the warranty period ( detail and time lines) honour of the date of manufacture and the numerical code unique to each equipment.Installation RequirementsSpace and storage Requirements of the equipment and accessories should be taken into account prior to installation.Electrical connections and stabilizers This has been detailed in Chapter 60. Special sockets and high voltage breakers, stabilizers and UPS (uninterrupted role supply) should be provided.Air conditioner Most of the LASER machines generate hotness and require certain temperatures to be well-kept while in operation. An air conditioned environment is preferred as it remains closed, relatively dust free and is designful for mach ine longevity.Smoke evacuators Fragments of skin, sensory hair and aerosols can damage LASER lenses or light based equipment due to physical interference with transmission. Smoke evacuation carcasss may be used to curve the plume debris and limit the harmful effects on the staff, patients/clients and the laser equipment.Standard Operating protocols (SOPs)SOPs regarding usage of the machine are provided by the manufacturer. Indications and Specifications are provided in the operator manual and should be adhered to. Based on the patient requirement, if modifications are made in the SOPs, these should be documented and informed to all the staff.Training of staff (machine operators or staff responsible for maintenance)All the staff members in the cosmetic dermatology set up should be trained to follow the SOPs, understand the need and importance of equipment maintenance for the smooth functioning of the clinic.Quality control checks (cleaning, safety devices, consumables)In addition to the daily cleaning regular each week or semiweekly check of each machine, safety devices and consumables should be done. This helps to prevent emergency maintenance issues and financial losses.Maintenance and servicing (Daily, Preventive, Annual)A record should be maintained of all planned and unplanned maintenance and services, including any lines or modifications. The service contract records, contact details of service personnel should be documented well.Equipment/ Accessory modificationAny modification to the equipment or accessories or change in its operational usage may have a bun in the oven safety implications associated with it. Hence, whenever any modification is done, appropriate documentation is mandatory. Standard accessories should be used.STANDARDISED AND EFFECTIVE EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENTA standardised form, including all the aspects detailed above for equipment management should be kept with item-by-item machines. A soft/ hard copy of this format for all machin es should be catalogued and serve as a ready reckoner to the concerned staff. A basic outline of the form has been provided in Box 3. The salient aspects for effective equipment management have been included in Box 4.Box 3 Standard form for individual machinesName of the machineIndicationsStandard specifications (usually provided by manufacturer)Storage specifications Equipment/ AccessoriesSpace Table mount/ Floor mountedElectricity hide out/ UPS requirementAC requirementConsumablesSafety devices- Goggles, cooling devices, smoke evacuatorsCleaning TechniquesMaintenance- Daily, Preventive, Annual or comprehensive maintenance services ( AMC/ CMC)Special tips dos and dontsInstallation dateOperator Training Names/ DatesContact details for Maintenance services Phone/ Mail id/ Website address/ PersonnelWarranty details Equipment/ Accessories, along with datelinesServices Contract AMC/ CMC, Renewal along with DatesService done Dates/ fag oute by whom/ Supervisory staffBox 4 General Tips for effective equipment management hang on a standardised form with individual machines.Train the staff to handle the equipment carefullyUnderstand the Operators manualTake care of all the parts of machine.Hand pieces are the most important part. Place them in a preventive box or on the machine as instructedKeep a check list of the consumablesKeep all the machines covered and in a dust free environmentContact technical personnel for rubber machine maintenance at regular intervals baulk for contraindication in case of all clientsBASIC EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCEThe general principles of basic equipment maintenance (as per the standardised form) has been outlined in Table 1. Modifications can be done based on individual machines and clinic requirements.Table 1 Basic Equipment ManagementEquipmentCrystalDiamond- USG, Cleanser, head season cartridgesMicrocurrentDiamond Pro LiftRadiofrequency /CauteryMesomate/Dr InjectorInjector MesoGun-Manual-AutomaticJet M MachineIndicationsExfoliation ge ntly removes the outermost dead skin cell layer for the epidermis.Reduces pigmentation and whippingImproves Acne scarsReduces fine lines and wrinklesReduces pore size and age spotsFacial liftMuscle liftBody ContouringIontophoresis-Product penetrationDisencrustation- Deep cleansingDermatoses papulosa nigra (DPNs)Warts bark tagsMolesSeborrheic KeratosisGranuloma pyogenicumXanthelesmaRhinophymaDull skinIrregular textureUneven skin toneHair lossCelluliteLymphatic drainageExfoliationInfusionStandard operating protocolsAvailableAvailableAvailableAvailableAvailableStorageTemperature20 -600 CHumiditySpaceTable mountedTable mountedTable mountedTable mountedDr. .Injector has its own TrolleyTable mounted or specially designed trolleyElectric/UPS/ ACEarthing +UPS/ AC-Earthing +UPS/ AC-Earthing +UPS/ AC-Earthing +UPS/ AC-ConsumablesHand piece depending on the type of machineNozzles of two different sizes small for face and neck and big for the organic structure partsAluminium oxide crystalsTwo long metal probes, one small probe with sponge for earthing , two sets of coloured wires, one metal roller, steaming pads and big pads.Hand pieceWire loop electrode and pointed electrodeDisposable as well as reusable tips are availableKinked wires may need refillingSafety devicesFoot pedalAir tubingTriple nozzle handpieceSafety goggles (during peel infusion )VitaminsCleaningThe jar has to be light of all the crystals after every service and cleaned.Hand piece needs to be cleansed with alcohol swab before use.Tissue residue should be remove from the active electrode (Rf power ON) with a sterile moist gauze (water only)No scalpel scissors or any sharp objects should be used as it may lead to tissue paper adherenceDisinfectionAll commercially available disinfectants may be used to disinfect the electrodes.Electrodes should be immersed in fresh cidex solution .then they essential be washed and under tap water , dried and Placed in the supplied boxSterilisationAll non- disposable ha nd pieces, cables, plugs and electrodes are autoclavable to 2500 F or 1210C.Steam cleaning of electrodes must be done just before use.Sterilize the guard with alcohol swab prior to the service uninterrupted cleaning of hand pieceMaintenanceJar needs to be replaced every fortnight for smooth functioning of the machineSpare hand pieces should endlessly be availableReplace filter and nozzle after every 15 bottlesDaily MaintenanceClean hand piece with alcohol swabs or SPCL cleaning Solution.Straighten the tubes.AMCPreventive maintenance should be done at an interval of 1-2 monthsPreventive machine maintenance at an interval of 1-2 months.The electrodes should be dip in dilute H2O2 solution so that debris gets cleared,before washingAMCPreventive machine maintenance should be at an interval of 6 months.Daily MaintenanceClean the gun exterior with spirit.Do not allow spirit to enter the interiors.Charge the Gun dailyAMCPreventive machine maintenance should be at an interval of 6 months.A MCPreventive machine maintenance should be at an interval of 6 months.Special Tips Dos and DontsDos- follow the instructions mentioned in the user manualDonts do not place anything on the machineDonts- Coloured wires should unendingly be tied up and placed on the machine when not in useDos- The only way the radiosurgery can create tissue damage is if the heat is allowed to accumulate in the tissue to the point where it can lead to excessive dehydration and hence tissue destruction. Preventing accumulation of such heat is the basic objective of radiosurgery technique and hence one should practice 10 seconds ON and 30 seconds OFF.Donts Do not utilize any flammable anesthetics or cleaning agents.Use the injector and needle that meets the international and domestic standards.SPECIALISED EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCESpecialised equipments such as Lasers, lights, radiofrequency based machines are nowadays an integral part of cosmetic clinics. Most of these equipment are expensive and have s pecific maintenance issues. In addition, the optical radiation emitted by lasers, IPLs and LEDs has potentially gaga effects on patients, clients and equipment users. There can be direct damage to eyes or skin. A potential risk of fires or explosions from lasers igniting gases or fabrics and the problem of smoke inhalation exist. Engineering (in- built safety measures provided within the laser machine), procedural (policies and practices followed at the cosmetic clinic) and administrative (review by health department) control measures are needed to prevent exposure to potential laser hazards. 2Effective equipment management procedures as outlined in Box 2 should be followed for each of the specialise equipment in the clinic. The most important aspect of maintenance is simple prevention. This can be achieved through the following measuresRoutine inspection, of the laser system and the surroundings (Daily/ weekly checks)Periodic inspection and maintenance of optical components and c ritical subassemblies (Preventive and annual maintenance checks)Documentation and Record keepingFew examples for daily/ weekly/ preventive checks for laser equipment are outlined in Box 5 1Box 5 Examples for daily/ weekly/ preventive checks for laser equipmentExamples for daily checksCheck whether the laser getup terminates on release of foot/ hand switchCheck the devices junction of the aiming beam with the therapeutic beamCheck devices filters/ tips for scratches or dirt.Check all system alarms and lights are operating appropriatelyAssess all device accessories including cables and connectors are clean and functioning.Examples for weekly checksInspect protective eye wear for lens scratches or general damageCheck all protective blinds, windows and doors, are dust free and functioning appropriatelyCheck that electrical system connections/ UPS, sample lights are functioning correctlyExamples of annual/ preventive checksElectrical safetyDevice calibration checksOutput measurementsB eam alignmentShutter operationAccuracy of timerFiltersThe general tips for effective and safe laser equipment management are outlined in Box 6. The general principles of work equipment maintenance (as per the standardised form) has been outlined in Table 2. Modifications can be done based on individual machines and clinic requirements.Box 6 General tips for effective and safe laser equipment managementLaser Room (details in chapter 60)Restrict entry to the room when the system is in use put laser warning signDo not include any light reflecting objects such as mirror,Provide rubber mat flooring ( prevents damage and losses in case of accidental fall of hand pieces, goggles, etc)Services/ Maintenance checklistMaintain a logbook of regular maintenance check and calibrationMaintain detailed breeding about service centre/ personnelCheck for engineers training certificate.Calibration must be checked by authorized personnel with calibrated power meter.Always check for calibration certifi cate when under AMC/ MaintenanceDeionized (DI) water is needed for cooling in some machines. Check levels 1-3 monthly and changeCheck fire safety measuresCheck for Electromagnetic immunity and declaration compliance.Check for recommended separation distances between portable and mobile RF communications equipment and laserEquipment UseCheck the power supply/ UPS before the machine is switched on.If the machines need to be moved to a different room, do it carefully and avoid jerky movementsAlways place the tips or hand pieces in the designated box so as to avoid any accidental fall or damage to the same optic lenses, fibre optic cord, some hand pieces contain lasing medium are expensive, hence handle all equipment parts with care Never leave the system in ready mode unattendedPractice use of hand switch as much as possibleMost laser screens have a touch screen. Be sure not to point on the screen while firing the laser shot ( Can inadvertently rule with the foot pedal)In event of any emergency use the emergency shut off knobUse colourless gels for lasersUse Skin markers and colours for demarcating areas. Skin markers should be preferably white or appropriate colour depending on the laser absorption spectrum or else they can act as chromophores and military campaign burnsCleanse and dry the area to be lased thoroughlyInspect the laser tip always before treating the patient. Do not use if damaged. crystallize sure the correct eye wear is used (Different protective eyewear is indicated for different wavelengths)Do not treat eyebrows eyelashes or other areas surrounding the eye welkin with Nd YAG or Er YAG lasers. The light emitted by these can cause serious eye damage or blindness. Use corneal shields especially in cases of direct touch lasers being used in the orbital area.Gas based and pulse dye lasers (Example- Excimer, Pulse dye lasers)Switch ON universalCleaning of hand piece with alcohol swabs.Gas bottles used as consumables are very expensiveMirrors nee ds to be cleaned by engineers every 3 months.Calibration of voltages is very important.Dye needs to be replaced after 50000 shotsBody shaping and contouring machinesAll hand pieces need to be cleaned dailyBetter to use specific oils or gels, otherwise ultra-sonography gel can be used may be glycerine based.The emitted sounds should be perfectPhototherapy unitsCheck lamp power every month and calibrate if neededClean fans every quarterlyTable 2 General principles of specialised equipment maintenance ( separate doc- horizontal chart)CONCLUSIONEquipment management and maintenance is an integral part of the cosmetic practice set- up. Specialised equipment such as lasers and radiofrequency based devices are expensive and have specific maintenance issues. In addition to the financial implications for the practice, the safety and efficacy of the treatments provided by the physician are chiefly dependent on well managed equipment.SUMMARYA cosmetic dermatology clinic differs from the traditi onal dermatology clinic in terms of the requirement of a wide range of equipment to perform various aesthetic procedures. It is a good practice to employ equipment management and maintenance measures. The effective equipment management procedures include checklists and processes for purchase, installation, developing standard operating protocols, staff training, quality control checks, maintenance and servicing (daily, preventive, annual ) and modifications in equipment/ accessories. Good equipment management and maintenance practices have healthy financial implications for the practice. It assures optimal usage and longevity of the machine life, along with safe and effective treatments for the patients/ clients.

Urban Waterfront Revitalization Through Landscape Approach Environmental Sciences Essay

Urban Waterfront Revitalization Through Landscape Approach Environmental Sciences EssayUrban waterfronts hold back heavily degraded and received to the full grown perception from urban dwellers. There ar needs of effective urban waterfront revivification programs to achieve a sustainable training of those waterfronts. This research studies is to formulize a ornament approach principles into revitalization program of urban waterfront. This cartoon engrosss archival analysis to identified type of urban waterfront revitalization programs around the creation and to understanding the mathematical function of urban waterfront. Finally, it uses literature survey to identified purpose considerations of ornament approach. Expected results of the study would include the types of waterfront revitalization programs, role of urban waterfront and founding consideration for waterfront landscape. They argon expected to lead towards formalizing the urban waterfront revitalization princip les based on landscape approach. After the introduction of the background problem, the proposal bequeath present the literature on waterfront revitalization, urban waterfront and waterfront revitalization program, and describe the research methodology before presenting the expected results. This study contributes in developing principles for waterfront revitalization program. Besides adding value to existing urban assets, the proposed principles for waterfront revitalization program support the sustainable development agenda of the world.Keywords Landscape approach, urban waterfront, waterfront revitalization program.1.1 BACKGROUNDUrban rivers provide spelly functions to the cities much(prenominal) as water supply, transportations, biological protections and promoting for the development of the cities with its social, sparingal and environmental values. However, with the non planned well urbanization, the rivers start been disturbed which resulting in degradation of urban ecos ystem.River restoration has progressively drawn attention, and corresponding activities have been carried out extensively (Holmes, 1998). Urban rivers that once were the most importance element of city were neglected. They were channelized and eject into big drain. The properties on its corridor turn their back to the river and the cities tried to treat river as unwanted thing.Nonetheless, river corridors remain as continuous pictorial feature within suburbanized landscapes, which make it more grievous resource for home grounds restoration and nature preservation. The encroachments of development into this area have fragmented, diminished and split up the vegetation along this corridor into small patches. These lead to substantial loss of habitat and biodiversity especially in urban areas.Due to the natural recourses destruction in urban area, importance of rivers has become realize by city dwellers. It becomes important places for amusement and leisure. This why in recent ye ars, the riverfront image and planning initiatives have increased. There are two major issues for this development, saving and human use. Most of approaches for river developments have difficulties to worry with both of them, which they tend to choose either one. These lead to the failure of the project. This thesis aims to bring these issues together to inform the practice of landscape architecture.1.2 APPROACHThis research study used a set of literature addressed waterfront development around the world. The literatures have covered many perspectives such as ecological, historical, cultural and built design. charge though the literature inspection provides a broad overview of waterfront development, the designs and planning of these waterfront developments have been superficial especially in ecology perspectives. Furthermore, for river corridor development, most literatures are focusing to non-urban landscapes, going the river corridors in urban landscape open for exploration .1.3 Problem statement1.4 Research question1.4.1 Main Research Question1.4.2 sub Research Question1.5 ending AND OBJECTIVES1.5.1 GOALSRevitalize the urban river through comprehensive landscape design solutions.1.5.2 OBJECTIVESTo ensure the goal can be achieved, these objectives have been derivedTo assess the literature on waterfront revitalization programs around the world.To assess the design that using landscape approach to understand their characteristic, strengths and weaknesses.To investigates and understand of the role of urban river to the users.To formulize the design principles for urban riverfront revitalization programs.1.6 CHAPTER OUTLINEChapter unmatchable introduces and contextualizes the research problems. The literature reviews are presented in Chapter Two. It examines the development of waterfronts, its design and planning approaches. Chapter Three is describing the research method. It analyze the landscape approach literature to define the concepts and cozy up t he principles that will guide the development of landscape design principles for urban riverfront on Chapter Four. Chapter Five summarizes the findings of this study discuss the application of the principles and presents areas of further research.It is considered that the design principles here proposed will be useful for landscape architects, designers and planners in invention the waterfront. Hence, it is expected they will help designers effecting and creating sustainable waterfront that celebrating the past, enjoying the present and respecting the future of urban environment.Figure 1.1 Research design diagram1.7 significant of study1.8 TERMINOLOGIES1.8.1 URBAN watercourseWalsh, Christopher J. et al. (2005) indicated that an urban watercourse is a formerly natural waterway that flows through a heavily be area. Urban watercourses often significantly polluted due to urban runoff and combined with sewer outflows.1.8.2 RIVER CORRIDORFrom Malaysian Drainage and Irrigation Departmen t (DID) guidelines of river development (2004), river corridor is the area impertinent the river reserved and in 50 meters from the river-reserved boundary.1.8.3 SUSTAINABLE watercourseThe sustainable watercourse covers an important element in Agenda21 about sustainable development. This is because the watercourse have competency to contribute in increasing biodiversity and profit from development, improving and enhance conditions of the areas and people who live surround it. Sustainable development elements are economic development, social progress, conservation of resources and protection of the environment (UN Earth Summit Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, 1992).2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Introduction2.2 WATERFRONT REVITALIZATIONHoyle et.al (1993, 2000) said that pioneer in waterfront replacement studies was Canada in proterozoic 1970s. In his studies, he found out that focus of waterfront rehabilitation was including wide range of development such as recreational, residential, retail , commercial, service and tourist facilities.According to him and Breen et.al (1996), the development of waterfront in America and Europe has occurred since 1960s. Perspective that tent to integrate design, environmental, social and economic objectives more efficiently (Johes, 1998) was the European approach towards waterfront development in 1990s.Manning (1997) adding that no use or treatment of waterfront should be allowed to exclude recreational value that no feature or operation however mundane needs to privation an aesthetic panorama and finally that ever the demands of conserving fragile nature need not exclude people from the scene.In other part of the world, the development of waterfront is comparatively recent phenomenal. Lately, many countries start to open their eyes on potential of their river. South of Korea has demonstrating some wonderful projects of river rehabilitation development such as Chengyecheon River and Han River rehabilitation project. Franco (2000) state s that in Brazil, there are many proposals of waterfront projects have been presented since early 1990s, unfortunately, few have been implemented. Most of them are because lack of funds and supports.Waterfront project could be divided into six categories based on Bren and Rigby (1994) studies. This categorization was used by Breen and Rigby as tool to compile a huge numbers of designs. The categories are historical, residential, recreational, cultural, environmental and working(a) waterfront. Usually, the development of waterfronts would include one or more categories in regularize to support various demands to the site. There are many cases that the waterfront project have mixed-used characteristic. For example, a project that has ecological features may be designed infused with recreation, education and trails. These multipurpose designs are to encourage the maximum use of the situation.Table 2.1 shows some of the waterfront projects that have a major characteristic but have se veral other features abound. This categorization does seem have significant role in effecting the frameworks and design either. In order to use the categorizations, the heuristic devise should be interpreted to emphasis the major characters of separately project.Table 2.1 Waterfronts, their major character and usesNo.Waterfront / CityMajor sheathUsesSource1Baltimore WaterfrontMixed usedUrban renewal cultural complex, office, residentialBreen and Rugby (1994)2Boston Waterfront pastal mankind promenades, hotel, residentialwww.thebostonwaterfront.net3Charleston Waterfront ParkPublic SpacePark, pierThompson (1991)4Elbe River, DresdenOpen SpaceEntertainment, art, parkFriedrich (1998)5Elbe River, HamburgMixed usedTransportation, residentialTrelcat (2001)6Thames River, capital of the United Kingdom docklandsPublic spaceRecreation, culturalChaline 20017Thames River, London Millennium VillageMixed usePromenades, institutions, residential, commercialBurdett (1998)8Thames River, London Mille nnium DomePublic spaceRecreation, culturalArnold (1998)9Potomic River, GeorgetownHistoricalResidential, office, mankind spacewww.georgetownwaterfrontpark.org10South Platte River, DanverPublic spaceIndustrial landscape, parkLeccese (2001)11Puerto Madero, Buenos AiresMixed useResidential, commercial, service, open spaceSchneier Madanes (2001)12Aa River, AarhusPublic spaceSteam daylighting, trailNielsen (1998)13Yarra River, MelbourneCulturalResidential, commercial, entertainmentSandercock Dovey (2002)14East River, New YorkPublic spacePromenadesFreeman 200315Meurthe River, NancyPublic spacePromenadesBruel Delmar (1998)16San Antonio River, TexasPublic spaceCommercial, hotel, entertainment, historicalPosner (1991)17Maas River, RotterdamMixed usePublic spaces, residential, officeMayer (1998)18 char Harbour, VancouverResidentialOpen space, office, marinaQuayle (1991)19Danube River, ViennaPublic spaceDam, ecological restoration, leisureHansjakob hansjakob (1998)20Chengyecheon River, SeoulPu blic spaceHistorical, commercial, entertainment, culturalwww.preservenet.com2.3 Role of urban watercourseUrban watercourse is a waterways that flowing through the populated areas. It often in bad condition and heavily degraded. Many of urban rivers have been polluted mostly by urban storm water runoff and combined sewer system.Initially, such watercourses were managed as a resource for human return including water supply, flood mitigation, disposal of wastewater and minimization of disease (Walsh 2000 Paul and Meyer 2001 Morley and Karr 2002). However, this has led to the degradation of river ecological functioning, an issue that was initially ignored (Paul and Meyer 2001).Important instrument for early settlement was water. Water transportation and construction of flood embankments have turn the water into the background of urban concerns. Most literature agree that these originally settlements were settle where there were enough water and land for food production, and there wer e no or rare disaster related to water. Water precaution became the rear end for religious and social institutions. As the region began to produce surplus food, there was a societies restructuring.Dubos (1972), a humanist, states that the urban areas are identified by evaluating their cultural practices in spite of changes in technology. Social scientists begin to acknowl asperity the water may have played a role in de bourneining the social characteristics of urban areas (Lind, 1979).Increasing of impervious surface area modified of natural drain system and local climate changes have stressed the urban river. The increasing in impervious area make the runoff of rainfall in urban area has increase, compared to rural area. Furthermore, installations of storm sewer, culverting and channelizing the natural river have transmitted the water into drainage network faster. These events increase the flow velocity, reduce the timing of the runoff hydrograph, increase the flow rates which f inally giving a hydrological problem flood.In term of flood mitigation, authorities who in charge in river development have change the course of the river flow, in order to prevent localized flooding. They use engineer practices known as river channelization. These technologies including lining the riverbed and banks with concrete or other materials, divert the flow into storm drains and culverts. These changes are often bringing negative effects. It includes flooding of downstream due to changes in the floodplain, loss of habitat for fish and other species, fragmentation of riparian and others, leading to deterioration of water quality.Fortunately, some communities have taken some effort to correct these problems. Their effort is to deal with bank erosion, due to the large amount of rainwater and using technologies such as daylighting and re-meandering. Example of successful project of daylighting is Cheonggyecheon river restoration project.Another major problem of urban hydrolo gy is water quality degradation. McPherson (1974) states that oil leakage and spill, mining activities, surface or streets have begrime the urban river. Other factors in this problem are soil erosion from construction, industrial process effluents, and combined sewer overflows, urban storm runoff, leakage from dirty tanks and cesspools and contamination.As a result of pollution in urban watercourse water, many of the biological and aesthetic functions of water in urban areas cannot be fully utilized, disrespect and sometimes leading to abandoning the river from urban life itself.Litte (1990) states that there has been increasing public concern for the protection of urban watercourse water. Numerous watercourse commissions have been establish in an effort to plan use and protection. There is reason to be optimistic about combining human use and natural environments as many river cities are rediscovering their waterfronts and commissioning planning studies (Kim et al., 1991).However , the effect of waterfront development projects is not always good. All development projects have environmental and economic impact, and the development of the waterfront is not an exception. Any development project that will benefit some people is inevitable. Social and environmental impacts of water development, a number of effects obtained are comm save extends far beyond the design of the site itself. Ecologists, environmentalist and designers have difficulties to predict overall effects because of complex interaction of diverse forces.For example, current knowledge of the man made wetland ecosystem might desirable for present of time. Thus, unless the design and planning precedes by louver to ten years, something unexpected situation might to develop which some with pet effects or some are not.In the current state of the art, this group often has difficulties to convince engineers, economists, and politicians that certain developments are unwise, or spending for sanative mea sures because of lack of solid scientific evidence or facts. Furthermore, engineers traditionally handle an urban watercourse development project. Sadly, they often ignore the social and environmental considerations in their planning process.In some cases, social scientists, landscape architects and environmentalist have been brought only later on the damage (Biswas and Durie, 1971). In principle, it is expensive to fix compensation after they occur It is cheaper to take preventive measures.However, overall framework for the planning, design and management of urban river corridors still not well establish. An integrated planning that concerns every aspect regarding to urban watercourse corridors revitalization program must be develop.2.4 LAndscape approach design for waterfrontThe word landscape is a complex word appears in a wide range of scientific literature. Various authors have treated this topic. Saltzman (2001) overview the term of landscape as notion of landscape has change d and evolved over time and between the various fields of disciplines.Saltzman (2001) indicates that other disciplines has a different approach. For example, natural scientists are often focused on the bio somatogenetic environment related to the interaction between species or ongoing natural processes as a landscape. Landscape architects tends to view landscape as planning tool while for archaeologists, they are more interested in the memory of landscape and its temporal aspects. An ethnologist, anthropologists, in literature or even among other disciplines, the landscape term refers for other purposes.In this study, writer defined the landscape using the concept of landscape as Elbakidze and Angelstam (2007). They interpret landscape as social interactions between biophysical landscape and human society as a telephone exchange idea. In European Landscape Convention, a landscape defined asan area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors (Anon. 2000b).The Elbakidze Angelstam (2007) concluded that the social-ecological systems contain elements of both natural and cultural landscape is intertwining with each other. Landscape characters have developed by both physical and cultural factors that evolved over the years.These aspects of the landscape must to consider in addition to the biophysical environment. Therefore, to fully describing a landscape, the number of variables that representing all the dimensions of sustainability have to use (Forman et al 2003, Berkes 1995s, Anderson et al, 2005).To implementing such landscape, approach needed some changes to suit the reality. One is to include of the different perspectives from different disciplines. For example, as described by Angelstam and Richnau (2008), while forest and landscape planners and managers resolve to accommodate commodity and non-commodity values in the same management unit, conservationists often define functional conser vation landscapes, and other stakeholders such as farming communities or district officials may refer to their cultural or livelihood landscapes (e.g., Innes and Hoen 2005).More important in landscape approach is to explore the resources sustainably and untraditionally. Attention has to be fashioning in evaluate the relationship between human with human, human with nature and human with god.The landscape approach sometimes can be use as basic for ecological development scheme. It deals with the physical, ecological and geographical entity, integrating all human and natural patterns and process. In addition, the structure, composition and function analysis helps in forebode the landscape dynamic. Landscape approach ultimate goal is to maximize the long-term benefits for biodiversity for sustainable development. This can be achieve by optimizing the balance between economic purposes, ecology and social.A landscape approach that considers whats happening at both the local, water body scale and at the broader regional scale is really the only way to study these types of issues, Cheruvelil (2010) states. If you look at only one ecosystem in isolation, you dont see the whole picture.Wiens (2002) states that systematic analysis of conservation and restoration management for aquatic ecosystems in riverine is not a tradition. However, the complex interactions between land and water systems are getting recognition from governance policies, planning and management practices.Singer (2007) states that universe a social-ecological system, the term landscape approach capture the need for applied interdisciplinary approaches. Term landscape approach in like manner emphasizes the ecological effects of spacial patterns of ecosystem and brad spatial scales. It is including the exchange and interaction within the entire landscapes, dynamics of development and spatial heterogeneity, the influence of spatial heterogeneity of biological and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity.Risser (1984) and Angelstam (2004) reflects the idea that landscapes evolve through time, as a result of being acted upon by natural forces and human beings, which underlines that landscapes forms a whole, whose natural and socio-cultural components are taken together, not separately (Berkes et al., 2003).2.5 summary3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY3.1 IntroductionIn order to conduct research on the application of landscape for the urban waterfront more efficaciously and achieve desired results, the method to be used in this study is divided into two main phases. Each phase consists of research method that leads to the multitude of constructive information needed to the realization of the targeted goalsPhase One will be involve mostly on the data gathering determination and review of available information while in Phase Two, based on the date acquired, a practical guidelines shall be formulated and analyzed.Detailed reasoning and illumination of the aforementione d methodology proposed are as per the next subchapter.3.2 PHASE ONE DEtermine and reviewVast collection of waterfront designs and frameworks from various literatures are collected. It is crucial to establish a good data management in order to have a full understanding of the subject and its related issues, either explicitly or holistically. The assessment of the data gathered in each project is necessary where these elements are identifiedDesign consideration of urban waterfrontProposed designPlanning frameworks base on the collected data, principles of the projects are reviewed, segregated and tabulated into a table of ball club-design consideration, which are open space, human use, character, ecology, accessibility, land use, management, design issues and economy. It is easier to review the quality and impact of a particular project through a list of segregated factors, which will be helpful for the implementation of Phase 2.3.3 PHASE TWO DESIGN road map formulationThe segregat ed list of design consideration from Phase 1 will be further analyzed. Each factors, its correlation, priorities and impact is review and ranked. Next, the first five best design consideration which is implemented will be selected.From the selected design consideration, their principles are outlined in another table for analysis and incorporated in the guideline formulation..3.4 LIMITATIONs3.3 PROCEDURESThe research will be divided into 5 stages as show in the figure belowStage 5Final outputFigure 3.1 Study Approach Flow Chart4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS4.1 Introduction4.2 Design and planning of WaterfrontThe existing frameworks and designs, which developed by government agencies, researches and buck private consulting firms, need to be examined and used as the base guidelines for proposed waterfront development and its design.This study applied the design concept definition by Lyle (1999). He stated that design activity is equals to the participation in the process of nature seminally , which means giving form to physical phenomena in every scale. The study also accepted his ruling on the difference of planning and design. Based on his judgment, planning involves administrative activities in spite of physical form shaping while design is the creative physical activity in all scale this design definition is similar to those explained by Steinitz and McHarg.Even though this thesis is aimed to discuss the design of riverfronts, it is also deals with certain part of the framework planning stage. This is due to the close relation of design issues discussed in the planning stage. Even Lyle (1999) himself acknowledged that the design and planning are closely linked and sometimes indistinguishable.Boston, Baltimore and Toronto were among the pioneers and being the model for the waterfront issues (Penteado 2004). Since 1970s, several publications illustrated the analysis of these cities waterfront (e.g. Breen and Rigby 1996 and Brutomesso 1993). In Toronto, for example, different frameworks, design and planning for its metropolitan waters edge were introduced (e.g. Reid 1997). rudimentary Waterfront Planning Committee (1976) in Toronto listed the physical properties that affecting the waterfront quality. They stated that it depends on the use, history, landscape, immediacy, views, activity, contrast, drama, intimacy, sound and wildlife. The Committee primarily focused on design, explores, and suggests the quality of the water edge form, visual quality, building materials and construction details, and a variety of uses.Waterfront design by Ontario Ministry of Municipal Affairs (1987) on the other hand addressed the following issues for designing waterfront shoreline protection, public access area, beaches, recreational boating, landscape for improving the waterfront and urban design.Royal Commission on the Future of Toronto Waterfront RCTFW (1992) proposed a framework of design principles for its waterfront which incorporated nine significant princ iplesClean Incentive of natural processes instead of engineering solutionsGreen Infrastructure composed of natural features and topography such as habitats, aquifers and parksConnection comparison between wildlife habitats, social communities, humans and nature.Open Maintenance and restoration of vistasAccessible Incorporation of public transitUseable Mix of public and private uses and public accessDiverse Variety of uses and programsAffordable Efficient use of government resources and integration of socio economic and environmental objectives (RCTFW 1992)Attractive Excellence in design to defecate memorable placesOut of all frameworks reviewed, these principles above were the most comprehensive context in the establishment of a waterfront. They dealt with both natural systems and integration of human needs.In contrast, Reed (1997) focused on the minimization of the impact to natural habitats when designing a trail along the Ontario Lake and thus came out with design guidelines. H e proposed that each design shouldAvoid most sensitive zoneBalance the effect of alternativesUse previous disturbed areasMaintain natural processesLimit access interconnected habitat enhancements.Unfortunately, he failed to mention the wildlife in urban areas along the coast.Alternatively, the Metropolitan Toronto Planning Department (1994) developed a framework based on these principlesavailablenessSharing the benefitsBalanceDiversityResponsible stewardshipMany of the guidelines reviewed incorporate different principles. Another case in point is Landplan Co Ltd (1995) who proposed a framework design called generic guidelines for managing visual change in the landscape for the Toronto Waterfront. The ecumenical guidelines required these principles to be addressedResidentialIndustrialCommercialRecreationalRuralHistoric areaCommunity characterVegetationSignageLightingHierarchy of open spacesSeveral authors combined their expertise and formulated a framework for the waterfront develop ment in the United States. One of them was from Harvard University Design (1980). They proposed a Guideline for East Boston, which was dealing withOpen spacePublic accessOrientationViewsNeighborhood scale practiseParkingThere was a successful case where a comprehensive guideline was developed. Torre (1989) presented a framework of waterfront project design based on these principles registerClimateSpecial elementsImageAuthenticityFunctionPublic perception of needFinancial feasibilityEnvironmental approvalsConstruction technologyEffective managementGoodwin and Good in 1990 formulated a framework to rebuild the waterfront in a small town. The framework displayed a list of six fundamentals in the planning process. They called them the tool and technique which areWaterfront uses and activitiesLand use control and incentivesLand acquisitionFinancing of riverfront revitalizationChoosing and using consultantsObtaining waterfront development permitsCoolman (Breen and Rigby 1990), stated that these general issues must be addressed during the development of design guidelinesSimplicity and clarityCompatibility with zoningPublication and communicationTable 4.1 summarizes the information of frameworks and design presented above and others world recognized waterfront project.Table 4.1 Interpretation of concern presents in planning and design frameworks. Tick cells indicate the issues addressed by each framework.NoProject, City/ literary productionsHuman useOpen SpaceCharacterEcologyAccessibilityL

Essay --

Globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon, which has permeated throughout nearly every aspect of society touching all parts of the globe. Globalization, which is traditionally, defined, as the transnational exchange of products, ideas, philosophy, religion, and aspects of culture is nothing new. The concept of globalization can trace its roots back to the ancient trade routes of the Old World in extra Silk Road, which spanned Asia, Africa, and Europe. Due to our advancements in technology, communication and transportation the extent of globalization has spread exp wizntially leading to a more interdependent globe. Most notably stinting interdependence is a main focal point of globalization, because it adversely shifts power from governments to non-government institutions. These non-government institutions mainly being multinational corporations, foreign financial markets, and large corporations become a more pivotal force in national policies and agenda setting. While this may be promising in allowing nations to grow more prosperous economically, it as well as stands to violate the human rights of the population. This intrusion from these corporations directly sacrifices state sovereignty allowing economic concerns to supersede human rights. Some key issues regarding human rights through the age of globalization revolve around the disparity between the rich and poor, the exploration of labor, and destruction of land of the indigenous population. Moreover, with this age of globalization intergovernmental organizations have come to action to determine and oversee the damages that may come along with this time of globalization. This call for governing bodies such as United Nations (UN) has been influential in attempting to regula... ...ental organizations seek to halt human rights and uphold affectionate justice in this age of globalization. Such examples of these organizations would be the UN. The main objective of the UN is to maintain peace throughout the world, developing social and economic prosperity throughout the globe, upholding human rights, and international law. Since the idea of globalization was conceptualized its been an ideal concerned with spreading trade throughout the world. However one of it unintended effects was the transparency of these nations. This transparency directly correlates to universal human rights. The UN establishes that through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) that individuals are afforded right to life, liberty, and security as universal rights. It declared that people should live free from slavery, torture, discrimination, and arbitrary arrest.

Discover The Adventure of a Lifetime in South Dakota Essay -- Tourism

Named for the Dakota branch of the Sioux Indian Nation, the State of confederation Dakota is a order that tells the story of Americas westward expansion in a way that just cant be demonstrate elsewhere in the country. From gold strikes to battles with the Indians, South Dakota is one bow that fulfills the typical Hollywood image of the Old West. However, visitors to this fascinating state will find that the story of South Dakota is much more interesting than any Hollywood western that they have ever seen. All in all, South Dakota offers visitors the adventure of a lifetime.South Dakotas Natural AttractionsOne of South Dakotas finest lifelike attractions is Badlands National putting green near Rapid City. This national park comprises 244,000 acres of protected land that features wildlife like bison and antelope. In addition to this, there are numerous fossils that are found within the park that provide an interesting look into this lands geological past. With hundreds of miles o f hiking trails and numerous other activities for visitors, Badlands National Park is one natural attraction that nature lovers will definitely enjoy.Another fantastic natural attraction in South Dakota is the Black Hills National Forest near Deadwood. This magnificent quality covers an area of cxxv miles long and 65 miles wide and features some of the most majestic rock formations and canyons found anywhere in the United States. In addition to its rock formations, this forest offers some of the finest biking and hiking trails found anywhere in the United States. All in all, visitors to Black Hills National Forest leave with a deeper appreciation for the gorgeous natural beauty found in this region.South Dakotas Cultural AttractionsBesides having numerous ... ...uth Dakota an adventure to remember for the rest of your life.SourcesTop 10 Vacation Attractions in South Dakota, Choice Hotelshttp//centralus.choicehotels.com/south-dakota-hotels/top10attractionsMost Popular Attractions, South Dakota.comhttp//www.southdakota.com/most-popular-attractions/328South Dakota, Wikipediahttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_DakotaBadlands National Park, National Park Servicehttp//www.nps.gov/badl/index.htmBlack Hills National Forest, South Dakota.comhttp//www.southdakota.com/black-hills-national-forest/103Black Hills National Forest, US Forest Servicehttp//webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache-ibL4Cz7AvIJfs.usda.gov/blackhills+black+hills+national+forest&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=firefox-a argue Drug, South Dakota.comhttp//www.southdakota.com/wall-drug/282