Business Process Reengineering and Organisational Change

Business Process Reengineering and Organisational Change Introduction This chapter reviews the Business Process Reengineering (BPR) and its vision of radical business process change, focusing upon the use of Organisational culture change for multidisciplinary team-working. It highlights BPRs superficial treatment of the human dimension of its programme for radical organizational change and raises the question of how HRM specialists are to respond to its trivialisation of the complexities and dilemmas associated with the reengineering of work processes. Business Process Reengineering Following the publication of the fundamental concepts of BPR by Hammer (1990) and Davenport and Short (1990), many organisations have reported vivid benefits gained from the fruitful implementation of BPR. Corporations like Porsche AG (Zinser, Baumgà ¤rtner, Walliser, 1998), CIGNA (Caron, Jarvenpaa, Stoddard, 1994), and Wal-Mart (Altinkemer, Chaturvedi, Kondareddy, 1998) are all acknowledged as having productively implemented BPR. However, in spite of the noteworthy advancement of the BPR concept, not all organisations embarking on BPR projects achieve their intended result. In 1993, Hall et al. claimed that 50-70 per cent of business process reengineering (BPR) initiatives fail to deliver the expected results (Hall, Rosenthal, Wade, 1993). Having BPR constantly at the top of the list of management issues in annual surveys of critical information systems reveals executives failure to either implement properly or attain the benefits of BPR (Stefanescu, Stefanescu, Constantinescu, Constantinescu, 2007). This combination of outcomes makes the concern of BPR implementation very significant. BPR has abundant capability for accumulative productivity through reduced process time and budget, enhanced quality, and superior customer satisfaction, but it frequently involves a fundamental organisational change. As a consequence, the implementation process is multifaceted, and needs to be examined against numerous succes s/failure factors to ensure successful implementation, as well as to prevent implementation drawbacks. Practitioners and Researchers have classified BPR in various ways with dissimilar prominence. Hammer and Champy (1993) described BPR as the primary rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to accomplish spectacular enhancements in significant, modern measures of performance, such as expenses, service, speed and quality (Adeyemi Aremu, 2008). Lowenthal (1994) defined BPR as the fundamental rethinking and redesign of operating process and organizational structure, focuses on the organizations core competencies, to achieve dramatic improvements in organizational performance (Aurand, Schoenbachler, Gordon, 1996). Alter (1990) described BPR as a systematic process that uses information technology to radically overhaul business process and thereby attain major business goals (Grover, 1995). Sethi and King (1998) defined BPR as a redesign and reorganization of business activities that results from questioning the status quo. It search for fulfilling explicit objectives and ca n lead to revolutionary enhancement. It is often interrelated with major cultural and technological changes (Sohail, Daud, Rajadurai, 2006). Nevertheless the idea of BPR began to evolve where many theoretical propositions underlying BPR surfaced (Khong Richardson, 2003). Figure 1 shows some of the developments that BPR has undergone. Although the theoretical propositions differ, similarities are present. Figure 1: Comparison of Perspective and theoretical proposition underlying BPR (Khong Richardson, 2003) Impact of BPR on the organisation The previous segment highlighted the fact that for the BPRs success organizational culture plays a crucial role. In this segment of debate a description is provided on the basis of various thinkers thought that what are the main units or elements of organization, where the organizational culture element stands among them and the inter twinning of these various elements showing that how influencing one can guide rest in the desired direction. As discussed ahead, an organization is an integration of various sub-units or sub sets. For successful implementation of process such as BPR, one needs to consider all these elements simultaneously or to identify the core of these elements so that by influencing that the entire organization can be aligned for the process change purpose. In 1988, Leavitt and Bahrami Diamond model (see Figure 2) accentuates the association between technology, business structure, and people issues and related control mechanisms (Peters Waterman, 2004). They identified these four elements as the core and need to be considered for any change initiative in the organization. Figure 2: The Leavitt and Bahrami Diamond (1988) Again, Weisbord (1978) tries to develop a diagnostic tool for identifying six-box organisational areas, using the categories if structure, purposes, relationships, rewards, helpful mechanisms, and leadership (see Figure 3), where an organization has to perform well in order to succeed (Weisbord, 1978). Figure 3: Weisbords six-boxes Organisational Model (Weisbord, 1978) Further elaborating and developing on this thought McKinleys 7s provide a comprehensive set of factors to assess an organizations readiness for change. These factors recognize seven fundamental components (see Figure 4) none of which should be overlooked before the change process starts (Peters Waterman, 2004). The various frameworks and models have several common aspects. Since, McKinleys 7s encapsulates the important constituents of an organisation and because it has Shared Values (or Culture) at its heart, McKinseys 7s model will be used as a framework to assess the impact of BPR on the organisation. Because of the comprehensive nature and the area of vastness and dimension, McKinleys model holds a bigger degree of acceptance in the literature of Change management in organizations. A further elaboration on the elements identified by McKinleys will make this fact more elucidate to the reader and establish its importance for this research work. Figure 2: McKinseys seven S (Peters Waterman, 2004) Systems Systems are codified knowledge, structured in an analytical arrangement (Zack, 1999). They are management control system, performance measurement and reward systems, planning, budgeting and resource allocation systems and management information systems (Kaplan, 2005). They are the guidelines that direct workforce and administration in their daily tasks. All the BPR explanations, either explicitly or implicitly, imply to these features of systems as the subsequent examples of BPR implementation demonstrate. Rohm, in his examination of BPR at the Principal Financial Group Inc., gives an illustration from its field support transaction. He found that earlier, it has 16 step process involving input from nine people located in several areas and on distinct floors of the home office. The modern structure empowered this process to be diminished to six steps, involving the work of only three people. Consequently, customers were supplied with a single contact individual who could implement and control the whole process (Rohm, 1992). Often, new processes are aided by new technology. Thus, both the new technology and the new multi-function positions demand employees learn new techniques. Structures In 2005, Kaplan describes structures as The way in which tasks and people are specialized and divided, and authority is distributed; how activities and reporting relationships are grouped; the mechanisms by which activities in the organisation are coordinated (Kaplan, 2005). Henley goes on to classify six distinct kind of organisation: Simple structure, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy, divisionalised form, adhocracy cult organisation. Having redefined the crucial processes within an organisation, the next step within BPR is to reorganise the organisation along process lines. Process organisations present a new form of organisation that aims to break away from many of the above traditional types, particularly the bureaucracies and divisional forms. Hammer Champy recommend a move to a widely horizontal structure established around the processes (Hammer Champy, 1993), whereas Davenport recommends a multi-facet matrix structure, with process accountability as a key element (Davenport, 1993). To achieve this, Jon Minerich states: the new organisation must adjust a balance between functional expertise and process involvement and goes on to say it is essential to remove functional barriers (Minerich, 2008). Still, whilst a process orientation is a new organisational structure it will incorporate attributes of the adhocracy: Workforces do not need to be supervised; they are grownups who are willing to take accountabilit y for their work products. Staff Buchanan Huczynski (1997) defines Staff as the quality and quantity of people employed but also adds the management concerns of motivation, reward systems, empowerment, the structure of jobs and team work (Buchanan Huczynski, 2004). The quality concerns will be noted in the Skills section that follows. BPR is often linked to new rewards systems. Davenport (1993) mentions gain-sharing, lateral promotion and a move from role title to process title, and variety through work role rotation. Life time employment, he considers encourage employees to redesign the processes to eliminate their own job (Sabki, Nawi, Mohamed, Azzli, 2005). BPR has certainly made some significant impact on the number of staff. At least in its early phase, re-engineering generally means heavy downsizing and extensive job reorganisation. The role of supervisors gets transformed and the number of intermediate managers usually decreased. At the same time, staffs at all horizontal have new, more receptive roles and specialist roles change fundamentally (Vollmann Brazas, 2004). BPR has indeed become related with down-sizing and right-sizing, and in such situations it is problematic to square with Davenports assertion above, that staffs should ha ve the confidence to redesign themselves out of the process. Skills Skills are defined as The distinctive competencies of the organisation needed to perform difficult tasks to a high standard along the dimensions such as people, management practises, systems technologies (Kaplan, 2005). The word empowerment is invariably associated with BPR. Bambarger (1993) and Anon (1993) illustrate employee involvement in the decision making through brainstorming potential solutions and by developing necessary skills to allow teams to make quick decisions. Hammer Champy (1993) elucidated on changing nature of job from simple tasks to multi-dimensional work, managers role from supervisors to coaches and executives evolves from scorekeepers to leader. Strategy Kaplan (2005) defines Strategy as: The positioning and actions taken by an enterprise, in response to or anticipation if changes in the external environment, intended to achieve competitive advantages. He concluded that strategic decisions are complex in nature, involve a high degree of uncertainty, and involve major changes. Johansson et al definition of the BPR drivers are of a strategic nature: Customers; Competition; Cost; Technology; Shareholders; Politics; Economics, Legislation, and Regulation [i.e. Environment] (headings in pp 37-49). One can see these relate to the Strategy definition given above. Johansson et al first task is to Discover the companys strategy and of what drives competitive advantage in a particular industry; the industrys value chain and the basis for competition, and how a particular company seeks to gain competitive edge (p87). Hammer Champy talk about the three Cs: Customers, Competition and Change (p17). Davenport (1993) advocates a Process Vision that is driven by Business Strategy (p127). BPR decisions, like Strategy decisions, are complex and involves a high degree of uncertainty ([BPR] is a complex undertaking and carries significant risk (Carey, 1993), and as noted under Systems and Structures, BPR involves major change. Style Style is the norms, dominant values and beliefs adopted by managers in their use of leadership (Kaplan, 2005). Hammer Champys New World of Work suggest managers to change from supervisors to coaches and executives to change from scorekeepers to leaders (Hammer Champy, 1993). Davenport (1993) also highlights that communication and commitment building must occur at all levels because changes incurred by process innovation are not only broad, but deep, extending from the vision of managers to the attitudes and behaviours of the lowest-level workers (Marjanovic, 2000). Considerable behavioural factor makes process innovation based change qualitatively distinctive from other forms of large scale restructuring. Process innovation involves immense change, not only in process flows and the culture surrounding them, but also in organisational power and controls (Davenport, 1993). Shared Values Shared values are the core or fundamental set of values that are widely shared in the organisation and serve as guidelines principles of what is important; vision, mission, and values statements that provide a broad sense of purpose for all employees (Kaplan, 2005). Successful reengineered business operations and individual belief systems need to be aligned with the specified beliefs of the organisation. Real value in an organisation is to be gained by looking at shared values that elevate above growth and profit objectives by connecting the ambitions of the organisation to innate human needs and principles (Ridder Wesselink, 2006). Reengineering entails as great a shift in the culture of an organisation as in its structural configuration. Reengineering demands that employees deeply believe they work for their customers, not for their bosses (Hammer Champy, 1993). The new process teams combined with shared values must believe in rewards, self-development and self-management centred on skills used. Critical Success and Failure factors of Business Process Reengineering There are a number of factors responsible for making a BPR process successful; simultaneously there are numbers of factors coexistent which can make BPR unaccepted in organization ultimately resulting in a complete negation of this process. Here is a discussion provided to elaborate on some of these factors so that it can be identified that which factor holds the bigger responsibility for a BPR to succeed or to fail. Success factors of BPR Among the chief success factors are aspiring objectives, a process approach and integration of electronic data processing (EDP), and the deployment of a creative team in problem solving (Peppard Fitzgerald, 1997). Ascari et al. (1995) emphasize four other elements in an organization with regard to successful BPR: Culture, Processes, Structure and Technology (Chang Powell, 1998). Ascaris analysis discovered that the enterprises that implemented BPR consented that its effect on the change of their culture was associated to the organisations reconsidering of its elementary business process. The concentration was also on recognising and enhancing core processes. Conversely, the extent and maturity of the business process architectures and the nature of changes within processes diverge within organisation. Furthermore, there must be substantial changes in structure, exclusively with stress on cross-functional work teams. The extent of the business process architectures is related to the study done by Maull et al. which showed the significant importance of this subject. He defined business process architectures as the definition of an integrated set of business processes (Maull, Weaver, Childe, Smar, Bennett, 1995). In 1999, Al-Mashari and Zairi underlined several facets of the critical success factors for BPR, including management proficiency and support, system composition, project management planning, change management and human resistance to change (Al-Mashari Zairi, 1999). According to Smith and Fingar (2002), BPR aims to achieve business performance and competitive advantage by applying innovative ways of doing business. Among few things, they stated to manage radical change efficiently comprises: communication is crucial to show support to the process change project and effective leadership to coordinate deployment of the resources to accomplish the strategic objectives (Smith Fingar, 2002). Further, to recognise the critical success factor of BPR in an organisation, it is essential to comprehend the organisation itself, since the factors may diverge viewing the type of organisation, including private or public. In the public sector, Hutton (1996) stressed several factors that need to be considered in order to implement BPR. These comprise swift dramatic changes in policy direction, rigid hierarchies, culture, multiple stakeholders, overlap of initiatives, wide scope of activities, and staff resistance that are crucial parts of public sector organisations (Hutton, 1996). However, he suggested that human issues should be considered for BPR to be performed in the public sector. This is supported by Smith and Finger (2002) who emphasized that communication at all levels becomes one of the critical elements here. According to the research done by (Berrington Oblich, 1995), it could be encapsulated that in order to implement reengineering, an organisation must understand it s composition first and ensure the vision was achieved. One of the significant points here is that commitment needs to be sustained and improved through communication. The employee concern rather than the technology concern is seen as vital to be dealt with and disciplined so as to make the change effort a success. The concern of culture becomes an imperative factor for BPR, which was further highlighted by Peppard and Fitzgerald (1997) who inspected the allocation of culturally based management procedures, namely BPR, making explicit reference to the German Organisation and cultural context. Their analysis determined that managers and employees as well should contribute their pledge for change. The conflict-free state will reflect on the sustainability of BPR in the long term. Other factors such as empowerment, culture, organisational circumstances and self-autonomy seemed to be significant for BPR to be effectively implemented. Hall et al. (1993) emphasized the depth factor which is related with shared values or culture in following BPR. This study identified six depth levers roles and responsibilities, measurements and incentives, organisational structure, IT, shared values and skills, which require change to enable successful reengineering. In an addition of methodology from the Hall et al . (1993) composition, Maull et al. (1995) concluded what the concerns are which fortify a BPR programme, by study commenced into a range of companies, located solely within the USA. Unstructured interviews took place with selected leading practitioners who had undertaken successful BPR projects and who were asked to share their experiences. The study was conducted with an individual or, more commonly with a team, which had overall responsibility for the BPR project within the organisation. There were five key issues in this study: scope of change, performance measures, information technology, human factors, and business process architecture. It is fascinating to observe and learn that human factors could become one of the sepping stones for the change to occur. The outcomes in Hall et al. (1993), Ascari et al. (1995), Maull et al. (1995), Hutton (1996), Peppard and Fitzgerald (1997), Al-Mashari Zairi (1999) and Smith and Finger (2002) underlined that Organisational culture and human resistance to BPR could lead to unproductive BPR projects. If the change has not been controlled and supervised carefully, employees would resist it, even it is a top-down approach, i.e. driven from the top. Failure factors of BPR Apart from the success factors, several authors also emphasized various failure factors in deploying BPR. Aggarwal (1998) stressed fiascos of BPR deployment, which were related to managers arrogance, resistance, crisis, expenditure, idea, etc. Hammer and Champy (1993) stressed some failure factors such as failure to have a process viewpoint, a rigid process that is not adaptable enough to be receptive to the requests and requirements, not linking workforce (i.e. bottom-up) in decision making, assigning someone that does not understand BPR, technology constraints, fabricating a project but concentrating on downsizing and cost diminution, processing an ineffectual team, and trouble with communication. Therefore, this research emphasized that reengineering is believed to commence with a new vision, mission and customers. Moreover, the scarcity of human resources, and insufficient IT competence and proficiency posed the main inconvenience in carrying out these programmes (Stoddard, Jarve npaa, Littlejohn, 1996). Other factors are the insufficient support from organisation members, absence of strategic vision, rigid organisational arrangement, and shortage of champion for BPR efforts (Ranganathan Dhaliwal, 2001). It is exciting to observe that, among erstwhile failure factors are poor top management support and human resources (Al-Mashari Zairi, 1999), people resistance to adopt (Stoddard et al., 1996; Peppard and Fitzgerald, 1997; Ranganathan and Dhaliwal, 2001), IT related problems (Al-Mashari and Zairi, 1999; Ranganathan and Dhaliwal, 2001; Smith, 2003), and ineffective BPR teams, lack of project management, and problems in communication (Al-Mashari Zairi, 1999). The point for reiterating with these critical factors is that without another kind of fundamental change, namely, a change in organizational culture, there is little hope of enduring improvement in organizational performance. Although the tools and techniques may be present and the change strategy implemented with vigour, many efforts to improve organizational performance fail because the fundamental culture of the organization-values, ways of thinking, managerial styles, paradigms, approaches to problem solving-remains the same (Quinn Cameron, 2006). Evaluating the above discourse it can be summarised to some extent that although there are numerous factors which make impact on BPR majority of them can be summed under the organizational culture umbrella and those who cant be listed under this head can be guided and impacted by the organizational culture dimension. So here onward the essence is to explore further this crucial dimension of BPR which not only impacts the success of BPR most but can guide it to the way of success. Conclusion Using McKinseys organisational model it was shown that a implementation of any change like BPR will impact on six of the organisational dimensions, and that it is driven by the seventh element i.e. Strategy. One can deduce then, that a full BPR programme will embrace significant organisational change. BPR is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes that result in dramatic improvements especially in meeting customer needs and other external strategic demands. Crucial to prosperous reengineering is not only the formulation of more effective and efficient BPR processes but orientation of organizational culture to support BPR. Since, shared values is placed at the heart of an organisation by McKinsey, one can also infer that a full BPR programme will incorporate substantial organisational culture change. To fully understand this repercussion, the subsequent chapter will investigate the literature on organisational and culture change. Organisational Culture Managing Organisational Change Introduction Previous chapter emphasised that reengineering is not sufficient to attain necessary change in an organisation. It had to be integrated with an overall approach to changing an organizations culture. All prosperous organisations have established something special that surpasses corporate strategy, market presence, or technological advantages. They have found the potential that exists in developing and supervising a unique corporate culture. The failure of reengineering occurred in most cases because the culture of the organization remained the same. Almost every highflying firm has established a unique culture that is visibly recognizable by its key stakeholders. This culture is sometimes shaped by the original founder of the organisation, for e.g. Disney or Microsoft (Schein, The Role of the Founder in Creating Organizational Culture, 1995). Sometimes it is established intentionally by management teams who decide to enhance their organisations performance in systematic ways, for e.g. , G.E or McDonalds (Karp, 2006). But, not all companies automatically acquire a robust and highly operative culture; henceforth further discussion would be on methodology for how to lead a culture change effort in an organization. The potential for professional subculture exists within any organisation employing professionals. Professionals entering an organisation bring with them a large range of cultural knowledge gained both from the wider society and from their professional training schools and previous work experiences. When they join an organisation and meet like professionals, then their previous cultural repertoire gets validated. Even a sole professional within an organisation will find support for his or her existing beliefs and interpretations through interaction with peers outside the organisation, reading professionals journals, and so forth. This sharing of experiences and belief leads to the development and maintenance of professional subcultures which compliments, conflict and counterbalance the primary organisational culture (Bloor Dawson, 1994). To comprehend how culture change can improve implementation of BPR and organisational capability, it is important that we make clear what is and isnt Organisational culture. A description of organizational culture and subculture will be first delivered followed by the clarification of methods for comprehending culture change in the context of organizations. Finally, employee response to cultural change will be described followed by process of initiating culture change is described which can be used in organizational development interventions. Organisational Culture Subculture There is no clear consensus of an organizational culture definition (Zammuto, Gifford, Goodman, 2000). However, many researchers tried to describe organisational culture as below: According to Quinn Cameron (2006), an organizations culture is revealed by what is valued, the dominant managerial and leadership styles, the language and symbols, the procedures and routines, and the definitions of success that make an organization unique. Culture has been an important concept in organisational study for a long period, but there remains significant range in how researchers observe and analyse culture (Martin, 2002). The anthropologist Kluckhohn (1949) defined culture as the set of habitual and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting that are characteristic of the ways a particular society meets its problems at a particular time (Price Chahal, 2006). Several academicians who have analysed culture and have frequently come up with considerably narrow definitions, or some have used these definitions and merged them into recent, more espousing definitions. For example, Schein define culture as: a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein E. , 2004). Scheins definition highlights that culture is something not to do with individuals alone but with groups of people collectively, who through their skills together in the work surroundings, will construct an image of what the organisation is all about and how it carry out its purpose. This image is constructed by knowing how to perform for survival and advancement. Contrary, (Smircich, 1983), support analogous hidden features of beliefs and values, while (Thompson Luthans, 1990) emphasise the behavioural interpretation of organisational culture that is learning through both direct and indirect means. For example, employees observe how they are cared by management and how they infer management treating other people. Accor ding to above theory, two components of behaviour exists: the patterns which are internal opinions of how one should act and the norms which are external observable manifestations of the internal opinions. Ogbonna (1993) asserted that culture may have lost much of its meaning as academics and practitioners use culture to refer to any facet of organisations that does not offer itself to obvious explanation. Also, there is a strong tendency among researchers and practitioners towards viewing organizational cultures as unitary belief systems (Ogbonna Harris, 1998). According to this, homogeneity, harmony and unity are features of organization cultures, and cultural change is understood as an organization-wide transformation process, where the old unity is replaced by a new one (Martin, 2002). This is a common view, although cultural organization studies have provided plenty of reflection on the issue of how organizations are subject to different types of cultural divisions (Lindstead Grafton-Small, 1992). It has also been made clear that the organizational belief systems are not necessarily clearly articulated or internally consistent, but that they may at the same time include inconsis tent and ambiguous elements (Meyerson Martin, 1987). The claim goes that the unitary interpretation can only deliver information regarding beliefs that are usually held within the complete organization. This creates problems such as the inability to reveal subcultures and a multiplicity of views, the inability to handle inconsistencies and the inability to take into account ambiguity in organizational beliefs. But, many theorists such as Morgan (1986) and Sackmann (1992) call for a view of culture that is pluralist with the existence of subcultures (Harris Ogbonna, Employee responses to culture change efforts, 2005). There are many kinds or levels of culture that influence organizational and individual behaviour. At the widest level, a global culture, such as a world religions culture or the culture of the Eastern hemisphere would be the highest level (Quinn Cameron, 2006). At a less general level are national cultures or subgroup cultures such as gender-based cultures, ethnic gr oup cultures, occupational cultures, or socioeconomic group culture. Each of these cultures is generally reflected by unique language, symbols, and ethnocentric feelings. Still less broad is the culture of a single organization (Quinn Cameron, 2006). Subcultures are groups whose common characteristic is a set of shared norms and beliefs. In contrast to subgroups, subcultures need not form around existing subdivisions, such as departmental or functional groups (although they often do), nor do they need to be consciously or intentionally formed (Boisnier Chatman, 2003). The range and variety of subcultures is as diverse as the range and variety of existing organizational cultures. Siehl and Martin (1984) gave three categories of subcultures: orthogonal subcultures, enhancing subcultures and counter cultures. Orthogonal subcultures are those groups of organisational members who accept the dominant values but also hold the

Islam Invasion of India in 1200-1700 72103725 Essay

The historical excerpt of India draws its genesis from the Indus Valley civilization which mushroomed in the North-Western part of the sub-continent as early as 3300 towards 1700BCE. Rashid Barrack (1999). This era was popularly known for Bronze and the subsequent Iron Age. Historians concur with the fact that this is the period that triggered the massive uprising of pinnacle kingdoms otherwise known as Mahajanapadas from 700–300 BCE. Rashid Barrack (1999). The scramble and partition and economic influence were a dreaded disease on the global scale before the papacy age; this affected almost all societies in the historical context. India like other societies in history was vulnerable to the Islamic invasion. The scramble for India began one century after the death of Mohammed, during this period Arabs advanced into the deep most parts of India where they settled at the Indus valley. Most of these successive raids were affected by Mahmud who had the main objective of controlling the wealth of India. They took over the Indian home turf Delhi by 12th century. Apart from the Islamic vested interest in India, other tribes from Persia and Central Asia also were seen as potential invaders into this sub-continent. Chirac. R (2000). Immediately the Sassanids succumbed, the consequent entourage of the Caliphate’s that welded enormous power and subsequently saw to its monopolistic dominion, It gave rise to Muslim dynasties of Asian heritage, which consisted of the Turks. Chirac. R (2000) Expansion of trade One of the impeccable reasons Islam expanded to India was strictly for economic reasons. The Muslims came in contact with India through the Arab invasion on a nest of pirates near neo-Bombay. Muslims enhanced their dominance in both accumulating the economic power and enhancing religion through a comprehensive structure that fused the political power, law and religion. This was meant to safeguard their vested interest. This prompted a massive expansion of world trade far beyond in the medieval era. Free trade was vividly enhanced by Sher Shah Suri who bunned all trade tariffs. Large infrastructures were built and by (1540-1544) Grand Trunk Road was built to create a conduit between Calcutta through to Kabul. Chitendra Sonigra (1997). This was prompted by the curiosity to secure trade empires along the Arabian Sea. During this period in time many Arabs settled at the Indian ports, prompting a transcendental increase of minute Muslim communities along the Indian costal line. Communities spontaneously occupied these regions, where they were used as mercenaries by most Hindu kings that hailed from the south. Chitendra Sonigra (1997). A fundamental aspect of the Muslim period in world history was the emergence of Islamic Sharia courts capable of imposing a common commercial and legal system that extended from Morocco in the West to Mongolia in the North East and Indonesia in the South East. Critically the imposition of the common commercial strictures was meant to facilitate the ease of operation in the region as the Islam looted the economy. Chitendra Sonigra (1997). While southern India was already in trade with Arabs/Muslims, northern India found new opportunities. Islamic forces become so tactical and designed common legal framework that subjugates the Hindu kingdoms. The adoption of the Sharia laws was an integral era in the history of Islam that enhanced the imposition of trading tariffs. The Sharia incorporated business conduits that favored both the Muslims and the Kaffirs. Hadley M. (1970). The marshaled out an economic annexing stratagem by clinging on a system that was rounded between the clergy, the administrative and the mercantile classes. This system granted them ease in terms of navigating potential territories in the sub-content. The Islamic legion was clever in that they established a political embodiment that amalgamated both the law and religion in order to safeguard and dominate on the economic spheres. As a consequent, Bengal was taken over and the central India by the Delhi Sultanate, empires like the Turko-Afghan reigned from Delhi: the Mamluk ruled during 1211-1290; the Khalji ruled 12-90-1320: the Tughlaq ruled from 1320-1413 the Sayyid (1414-51) while the Lodhi ruled from 1451-1526. Hadley M. (1970). The Islamic hegemony also eyed the Southern kingdom where futile resistance was marshaled up by Vijayanagar until the tumbling down of the Sultanate Empire in 1565. Rashid Barrack (1999). This resulted into the expansion of international trade, in all spheres of the sub-continent. Chitendra Sonigra (1997). While it is evident that during this era a section of leaders were overzealous about spreading Islam and varied sections inclined to the Akbar dynasty was liberal in founding a more harmonious religion. The economic aspect was championed through the massive empire uprising such as the Mughal dynasty in 1526–1707, that domineered India for 200 years: the Mughal annexed so much wealth that made them so rich. Hadley M. (1970). The Islamic intrusion in India was categorically for economic reasons; this was achieved through the expansion of slave territories and the exploitation gun powder. After the death of Auranzeb’s death, the dominance of Muslim subsided, this was followed by the successive imperialistic and provincial hereditary powers was coupled with intrigue and force. After a short while mansabdari system gave birth to the zamindari system where aristocratic structures of government collected rents. Hadley M. (1970). Technology Expansion The expansive international trade during these wee years enhanced the transportation of industrial technology and urban ethical paradigm shift. Although the Indian sub-continent had a rich intellectual culture that was more advanced, the water-wheel technology for irrigation was imported during the Muslim period of invasion. Architectural designs such as those ones of the ceramic tiles that was dominant in Iraq and Iran was also transported by the mughal rulers. These designs gave Arabs a bargaining ground and they enhanced their economic mission under the pretext of ushering foreign technology. Hadley M. (1970). Cultural influence To enhance prolific dominance on the Indian subcontinent, the Islam had to incorporate the divide and rule philosophy that polarized the sub-continental psyche, which complicated issues majority of settled agrarian societies of India during this time. The Muslim’s however did not adopt the Indian mores and values; they instead retained their identity and fronted legal cum administrative structures that outrun the mainstream systems. The fundamental effect of Islam on the Indian culture influenced the evolution of all spheres of human endeavor; this includes language, dress, cuisine, architectural development and also the social and cultural values. The Muslim reign witnessed a magnificent urbanization of India and the spontaneous mushrooming of many cities and their urban mores. There was bit of language modification that was as a result of Muslim invasion. Since the Islam was a key player in the transatlantic trade the monetary factor was a major consideration in welding dominance in India, they however, extended their trade conduits that spread from Morocco through to Indonesia. This change of emphasis on mercantilism and trade from the more strongly centralized governance systems further clashed with the agricultural based traditional economy and also provided fuel for social and political tensions. Rashid Barrack (1999).

APush History Term Paper Essay

Robert La Follette, the son of a small farmer, was born in Dane County, Wisconsin, on 14th June, 1855. He worked as a farm labourer before entering the University of Wisconsin in 1875. In 1876 La Follette met Robert G. Ingersoll. He later recalled: â€Å"Ingersoll had a tremendous influence upon me, as indeed he had upon many young men at the time. It was not that he changed my beliefs, but he liberated my mind. Freedom was what preached: he wanted the shackles off everywhere. He wanted men to think boldly about all things: he demanded intellectual and moral courage.† After graduating in 1879 he set up as a lawyer and the following year became District Attorney of Dane County. Elected to Congress as a Republican, La Follette was extremely critical of the behaviour of some of the party bosses. In 1891, La Follette announced that the state Republican boss, Senator Philetus Sawyer, had offered him a bribe to fix a court case. Over the next six years La Follette built up a loyal following within the Republican Party in opposition to the power of the official leadership. Proposing a programme of tax reform, corporation regulation and an extension of political democracy, La Follette was elected governor of Wisconsin in 1900. Once in power La Follette employed the academic staff of the University of Wisconsin to draft bills and administer the laws that he introduced. He later recalled: â€Å"I made it a policy, in order to bring all the reserves of knowledge and inspiration of the university more to the service of the people, to appoint experts from the university wherever possible upon the important boards of the state – the civil service commission, the railroad commission and so on – a relationship which the university has always encouraged and by which the state has greatly profited.† La Follette was also successful in persuading the federal government to introduce much needed reforms . This included the regulation of the railway industry and equalized tax assessment. In 1906 La Follette was elected to the Senate and over the next few years argued that his main role was to â€Å"protect the people† from the â€Å"selfish interests†. He claimed that the nation’s economy was dominated by fewer than 100 industrialists. He went on to argue that these men then used this power to control the political process. La Follette supported the growth of trade unions as he saw them as a check on the power of large corporations. In 1909 La Follette and his wife, the feminist, Belle La Follette founded the La Follette’s Weekly Magazine. The journal campaigned for women’s suffrage, racial equality and other progressive causes. Lincoln Steffens argued: â€Å"La Follette is the opposite of a demagogue. Capable of fierce invective, his oratory is impersonal; passionate and emotional himself, his speeches are temperate. Some of them are so loaded with facts and such closely knit arguments that they demand careful reading, and their effect is traced to his delivery, which is forceful, emphatic, and fascinating.† Art Young, The Masses (1917) La Follette supported Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential election and approved his social justice legislation. However, he complained that he was under the control of big business and was totally opposed to Wilson’s decision to enter the First World War. Once war was declared La Follette opposed conscription and the passing of the Espionage Act. La Follette was accused of treason but was a popular hero with the anti-war movement. Lincoln Steffens was a great supporter of La Follette: â€Å"Governor La Follette was a powerful man, who, short but solid, swift and willful in motion, in speech, in decision, gave the impression of a tall, a big man†¦ what I saw at my first sight of him was a sincere, ardent man who, whether standing, sitting, or in motion, but the grace of trained strength, both physical and mental†¦ Rather short in stature, but broad and strong, he had the gift of muscled, nervous power, he kept himself in training all his life. His sincerity, his integrity, his complete devotion to his ideal, were indubitable; no one who heard could suspect his singleness of purpose or his courage.† La Follette became the candidate of the Progressive Party in the 1924 presidential election. Although he gained support from trade unions, individuals like Fiorello La Guardia and Vito Marcantonio, the Socialist Party and the Scripps-Howard newspaper chain, La Follette and his running partner, Burton K. Wheeler, only won one-sixth of the votes. Robert La Follette died on 18th June, 1925.

Purpose of Education Essay - 669 Words

Synthesis Essay: The Purpose of Education Everyday we go to school to receive our education, but what is the purpose of education? Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech, â€Å"The Purpose of Education† and Frank O’Connor’s short story, â€Å"Christmas Morning,† both discuss what is the purpose of education. The purpose of education is to acknowledge not only one’s intelligence, but also one’s character, provide one with the ability to make decisions and achieve their goals. One of the purposes of education is to acknowledge one’s intelligence. In Frank O’Connor’s â€Å"Christmas Morning,† Larry’s mother believes that intelligence is the crucial part to the purpose of education. She said to Larry, â€Å"if only you’d stick to your books, you might be†¦show more content†¦Martin Luther King Jr. means is that the goal we set must be acceptable and fair. A goal that can achieve with the help of intelligence and character that developed during school. In â€Å"Christmas Morning,† the mother does agree that character is also important along with intelligence. When Larry swaps his Christmas present with his younger brother, Sunny, his mother is furious. She replies to her husband, â€Å"do you want my son to grow up a liar and a thief?† She understands that if the child knows how to lie and steal, this loses the true purpose of education, but she does not value the goal and decision that Larry sets. Larry wants to be a solider, his mother sighed, â€Å"I’m afraid that’s all you’ll be fit for.† She believes being a solider is not a â€Å"legitimate† goal, it does not require intelligence and character, not like an engineer or clerk that she consider as â€Å"good† jobs. Both writers acknowledge character development is equally important as intelligence for the purpose of education. Mr. King further saying that achieve a legitimate goal is important as character and intelligence in the purpose of education. Both Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech and the mother in Frank O’Connor’s short story, suggest that the purpose of education is intelligence and character but different view points. The mother thinks about the purpose of educationShow MoreRelatedEducation : Purposes Of Education Essay1311 Words   |  6 PagesFall 2015 Purposes of Education The vocational purpose of education refers to the information and abilities students master through their learning experience in schools. In other words, the main goal of this purpose is to prepare literate and economically aware adults. In reference to early elementary school years, skills that students must master are basic addition/subtraction, memorization, learning to read, and basic sentence writing. Mastering these skills are an important piece of the economicRead MoreThe Purpose Of Education1038 Words   |  5 Pagescommon good refers to the advantage of all people in society. The purpose of education is to prepare students with the life skills they need to be better citizens when they become adults. Most schools promote the idea of the common good in their mission statements. My school mission statement is, â€Å"The mission of the Wadsworth City Schools, in cooperation with families, school personnel, and community, is to provide an education in a safe environment t hat will enable all students to reach theirRead MoreThe Purpose Of Education1041 Words   |  5 PagesEducation has always played an important role within societies and still continues to do so. Education certainly has numerous purposes. From my point of view, the purpose of education is to transfer a wide range of knowledge to students in various fields in order to pursue life ambitions such as job opportunities, research and to prepare students for life and enhancing their current abilities. Education will build and develop the necessary skills required in order for individuals to communicateRead MoreThe Purpose Of Education1918 Words   |  8 Pages1. What is the purpose of education? The purpose of education is to develop young minds with the values and principles that are required of a being a productive and thriving citizen. An education gives children the ability to think and reason critically. It is extremely important that children are educated to think for \right and wrong. For example, children that do not graduate high school. The number of adults in correctional facilities with high school diplomas versus those without are very unbalancedRead MoreThe Definition And The Purpose Of Education1484 Words   |  6 Pagesthe definition and the purpose of education. I first define education as a particularly social activity through the integration from different views. Then I introduce the education in China, in the process of quality education reform, which can be taken as a shift from the utilization of education. The current situation, however, is unsatisfactory and problematic because the reform seems to be just a formality. Partially as a solution to this, I describe the purpose of education to focus on the preparationRead More The Purpose of an Education Essay548 Words   |  3 PagesThe Purpose of an Education Many of today’s youth do not see the purpose of education. Students, however, have goals and ambitions they want to fulfill when they reach adulthood. They want to be the lawyers, doctors, teachers, computer analysts, and government officials. They want to have salaries that exceed $50,000 so they can drive the BMW(s) and Lexus(es). To fill these positions, young people need to meet the qualifications and they will see that it fundamentally comes down toRead MorePurpose of Higher Education1129 Words   |  5 Pagesdifferent theories for the purpose of higher education in The New Yorker’s article named, Live and Learn: Why We Have College. Menand (2011) claims that the reasons for a college education are meritocratic, democratic, and vocational. These theories are great models for the purpose of higher education in our culture at different points in our history. Our colleges and universities conduct instruction with clear and definite intentions. The instit utions of higher education adopt certain techniques designedRead MorePurpose Of College Education1041 Words   |  5 Pageshave a college education because they do not consider important factor when it comes to make an important choice in this case, your career. Today in America the purpose of a college education can be interpretive in different ways and meaning depending on the position of each person in the articles,â€Å"Post-College Success Not All About the Money† and â€Å"Higher Education and the â€Å"American Dream†: Why the Status Quo Won’t Get Us There† states and support that the purpose of a college education is to find yourselfRead MorePurpose Of College Education863 Words   |  4 Pages Education is the understanding of knowledge, skills, and moral values. It is essential for the growth and development of students. It serves as the direction of the mind of a young adult. A college education is an important stage because it helps students understand and appreciate the importance of education in the society. It is an optional stage of a formal system of education that offers vocational learning. The college experience teaches the young generation to work by preparing them psychologicallyRead MoreWhat Is The Purpose Of Education? Essay1419 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is the Purpose of Education? The purpose of education in any society is to pass down the skills and knowledge required to live within society. Depending on the amount and quality of the education you receive, you can build any life for yourself. Although this can be very positive and uplifting, it can also be negative and detrimental, depending on the society that you live in. Education can help people living in oppressive situations with no hope to realize their potential and change their