Waste Water Treatment Processes Environmental Sciences Essay

Meaning OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT: Domestic effluent intervention or sewerage intervention, is the procedure of taking contaminations from effluent and family sewerage, both overflow ( wastewaters ) and domestic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological procedures to take physical, chemical and biological contaminations. Its aim is to bring forth an environmentally-safe fluid waste watercourse ( or treated wastewater ) and a solid waste ( or treated sludge ) suitable for disposal or reuse ( normally as farm fertiliser ) . Using advanced engineering it is now possible to re-use sewerage wastewater for imbibing H2O, although Singapore is the lone state to implement such engineering on a production graduated table in its production of NEWater. 1.2 ORIGIN OF WASTE WATER Sewage is created by residential, institutional, and commercial and industrial constitutions and includes family waste liquid from lavatories, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is disposed of via cloacas. In many countries, sewerage besides includes liquid waste from industry and commercialism. The separation and draining of family waste into greywater and blackwater is going more common in the developed universe, with greywater being permitted to be used for irrigating workss or recycled for blushing lavatories. Sewage may include stormwater overflow. Sewage systems capable of managing stormwater are known as combined systems. Combined sewer systems are normally avoided now because precipitation causes widely changing flows cut downing sewerage intervention works efficiency. Combined cloacas require much larger, more expensive, intervention installations than healthful cloacas. Heavy storm overflow may overpower the sewerage intervention system, doing a spill or flood. Sanitary cloacas are typically much smaller than combined cloacas, and they are non designed to transport stormwater. Backups of natural sewerage can happen if inordinate Infiltration/Inflow is allowed into a healthful cloaca system. Modern sewered developments be given to be provided with separate storm drain systems for rainwater. As rainfall travels over roofs and the land, it may pick up assorted contaminations including dirt atoms and other deposit, heavy metals, organic compounds, carnal waste, and oil and lubricating oil. ( See urban overflow. ) Some legal powers require stormwater to have some degree of intervention before being discharged straight into waterways. Examples of intervention procedures used for stormwater include keeping basins, wetlands, buried vaults with assorted sorts of media filters, and vortex centrifuges ( to take harsh solids ) .Chapter TWO2.1 OVERVIEW OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESSESSewage can be treated near to where it is created, a decentralized system, ( in infected armored combat vehicles, biofilters or aerophilic intervention systems ) , or be collected and transported via a web of pipes and pump Stationss to a municipal intervention works, a centralized system, ( see sewag e and pipes and substructure ) . Sewage aggregation and intervention is typically capable to local, province and federal ordinances and criterions. Industrial beginnings of effluent frequently require specialised intervention processes as shown in the diagram below:Procedure Flow Diagramfor a typical intervention works via Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands ( SFCW )Sewage intervention by and large involves three phases, called primary, secondary and third intervention. Primary intervention consists of temporarily keeping the sewerage in a quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the underside while oil, lubricating oil and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and floating stuffs are removed and the staying liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary intervention. Secondary intervention removes dissolved and suspended biological affair. Secondary intervention is typically performed by autochthonal, water-borne microorganisms in a managed home ground. Secondary intervention may necessitate a separation procedure to take the microorganisms from the treated H2O prior to dispatch or third intervention. Third intervention is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary intervention in order to let rejection into a extremely sensitive or delicate ecosystem ( estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs etc. ) . Treated H2O is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically ( for illustration, by lagunas and microfiltration ) prior to dispatch into a watercourse, river, bay, laguna or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf class, green manner or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can besides be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural intents.2.2 PRE-TREATMENTPre-treatment removes stuffs that can be easy collected from the natural waste H2O before they damage or clog the pumps and skimmers of primary intervention clarifiers ( rubbish, tree limbs, foliages, etc. ) .ScreeningThe inflowing sewerage H2O is screened to take all big objects like tins, shreds, sticks, fictile packages etc. carried in the sewerage watercourse. This is most normally done wit h an automated automatically raked saloon screen in modern workss functioning big populations, whilst in smaller or less modern workss a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action of a mechanical saloon screen is typically paced harmonizing to the accretion on the saloon screens and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and subsequently disposed in a landfill or incinerated. Bar screens or mesh screens of changing sizes may be used to optimise solids remotion. If gross solids are non removed they become entrained in pipes and traveling parts of the intervention works and can do significant harm and inefficiency in the procedure.GRIT REMOVALPre-treatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber where the speed of the entrance effluent is adjusted to let the colony of sand, grit, rocks, and broken glass. These atoms are removed because they may damage pumps and other equipment. For little healthful cloaca systems, the grit Chamberss may non be necessary, but grit rem otion is desirable at larger workss.FAT AND GREASE REMOVALIn some larger workss, fat and lubricating oil is removed by go throughing the sewerage through a little armored combat vehicle where skimmers collect the fat natation on the surface. Air blowers in the base of the armored combat vehicle may besides be used to assist retrieve the fat as a foam. In most workss nevertheless, fat and lubricating oil remotion takes topographic point in the primary colony armored combat vehicle utilizing mechanical surface skimmers.2.3 PRIMARY TREATMENTIn the primary deposit phase, sewerage flows through big armored combat vehicles, normally called â€Å" primary clarifiers † or â€Å" primary deposit armored combat vehicles. † The armored combat vehicles are used to settle sludge while lubricating oil and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off. Primary settling armored combat vehicles are normally equipped with automatically goaded scrapers that continually drive the gathered sludge towards a hopper in the base of the armored combat vehicle where it is pumped to sludge intervention installations. Grease and oil from the drifting stuff can sometimes be recovered for saponification. The dimensions of the armored combat vehicle should be designed to consequence remotion of a high per centum of the floatables and sludge. A typical deposit armored combat vehicle may take from 60 to 65 per centum of suspended solids, and from 30 to 35 per centum of biochemical O demand ( BOD ) from the sewerage.2.4 SECONDARY TREATMENTSecondary intervention is designed to well degrade the biological content of the sewerage which are derived from human waste, nutrient waste, soaps and detergent. The bulk of municipal workss handle the settled sewerage spirits utilizing aerophilic biological procedures. To be effectual, the biology necessitate both O and nutrient to populate. The bacterium and Protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminations ( e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain C molecules, etc. ) and adhere much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary intervention systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or affiliated growing systems include dribbling filters and revolving biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewerage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is assorted with the sewerage and can be operated in a smaller infinite than fixed-film systems that treat the same sum of H2O. However, fixed-film systems are more able to get by with drastic alterations in the sum of biological stuff and can supply higher remotion rates for organic stuff and suspended solids than suspended growing systems. [ 6 ] :11-13 Rough ining filters are intended to handle peculiarly strong or variable organic tonss, typically industrial, to let them to so be treated by conventional secondary intervention procedures. Features include filters filled with media to which effluent is applied. They are designed to let high hydraulic burden and a high degree of aeration. On larger installings, air is forced through the media utilizing blowers. The attendant effluent is normally within the normal scope for conventional intervention procedures. A generalised, conventional diagram of an activated sludge procedure. A filter removes a little per centum of the suspended organic affair, while the bulk of the organic affair undergoes a alteration of character, merely due to the biological oxidization and nitrification taking topographic point in the filter. With this aerophilic oxidization and nitrification, the organic solids are converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and can settle to the underside of a armored combat vehicle. The wastewater of the filter is hence passed through a deposit armored combat vehicle, called a secondary clarifier, secondary subsiding armored combat vehicle or humus armored combat vehicle.ACTIVATED SLUDGEIn general, activated sludge workss encompass a assortment of mechanisms and procedures that use dissolved O to advance the growing of biological floc that well removes organic stuff. The procedure traps particulate stuff and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonium hydroxide to nitrite and nitrate and finally to nitrogen gas.SURFACE-AERATED BASINS ( LAGOONS )Many little municipal sewerage systems in the United States ( 1 million gal./day or less ) usage aerated lagunas. Most biological oxidization processes for handling industrial effluents have in common the usage of O ( or air ) and microbic action. Surface-aerated basins achieve 80 to 90 per centum remotion of BOD with keeping times of 1 to 10 yearss. The basins may run in deepness from 1.5 to 5.0 meters and utilize motor-driven aerators drifting on the surface of the effluent. In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide two maps: they transfer air into the basins required by the biological oxidization reactions, and they provide the commixture required for scattering the air and for reaching the reactants ( that is, O, effluent and bug ) . Typically, the drifting surface aerators are rated to present the sum of air tantamount to 1.8 to 2.7A kilograms OHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen † 2/kWA ·h. However, they do non supply as good commixture as is usually achieved in activated sludge systems and hence aerated basins do non accomplish the same public presentation degree as activated sludge units. Biological oxidization procedures are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 A °C and 40 A °C, the rate of biological reactions increase with temperature. Most surface aerated vass operate at between 4 A °C and 32 A °C.CONSTRUCTED WETLANDSConstructed wetlands ( can either be surface flow or subsurface flow, horizontal or perpendicular flow ) , include engineered reedbeds and belong to the household of phytorestoration and ecotechnologies ; they provide a high grade of biological betterment and depending on design, act as a primary, secondary and sometimes third intervention, besides see phytoremediation. One illustration is a little reedbed used to clean the drainage from the elephants ‘ enclosure at Chester Zoo in England ; legion CWs are used to recycle the H2O of the metropolis of Honfleur in France and legion other towns in Europe, the US, Asia and Australia. They are known to be extremely productive systems as they copy natural wetlands, called the â€Å" Kidneys of the Earth † for their cardinal recycling capacity of the hydrological rhythm in the biosphere. Robust and dependable, their intervention capacities improve as clip spell by, at the antonym of conventional intervention workss whose machinery age with clip. They are being progressively used, although equal and experient design are more cardinal than for other systems and infinite restriction may hinder their usage.FILTER BEDS ( OXIDIZING BEDS )In older workss and those having variable burdens, dribbling filter beds are used where the settled sewerage spirits is spread onto the surface of a bed made up of coke ( carbonized coal ) , limestone french friess or specially fabricated fictile media. Such media must hold big surface countries to back up the biofilms that form. The spirits is typically distributed through perforated spray weaponries. The distributed spirits drips through the bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains besides provide a beginning of air w hich percolates up through the bed, maintaining it aerophilic. Biological movies of bacteriums, Protozoa and fungi signifier on the media ‘s surfaces and eat or otherwise cut down the organic content. This biofilm is frequently grazed by insect larvae, snails, and worms which help keep an optimum thickness. Overloading of beds increases the thickness of the movie taking to clogging of the filter media and ponding on the surface.SOIL BIO-TECHNOLOGYA new procedure called Soil Bio-Technology ( SBT ) developed at IIT Bombay has shown enormous betterments in procedure efficiency enabling entire H2O reuse, due to highly low runing power demands of less than 50 Js per kilogram of treated H2O. Typically SBT systems can accomplish chemical O demand ( COD ) degrees less than 10A mg/L from sewerage input of COD 400A mg/L. SBT workss exhibit high decreases in COD values and bacterial counts as a consequence of the really high microbic densenesss available in the media. Unlike conventional intervention workss, SBT workss produce undistinguished sums of sludge, preventing the demand for sludge disposal countries that are required by other engineerings.BIOLOGICAL AERATED FILTERSBiological Aerated ( or Anoxic ) Filter ( BAF ) or Biofilters combine filtration with biological C decrease, nitrification or denitrification. BAF normally includes a reactor filled with a filter media. The media is either in suspension or supported by a crushed rock bed at the pes of the filter. The double intent of this media is to back up extremely active biomass that is attached to it and to filtrate suspended solids. Carbon decrease and ammonium hydroxide transition occurs in aerophilic manner and sometime achieved in a individual reactor while nitrate transition occurs in anoxic manner. BAF is operated either in upflow or downflow constellation depending on design specified by maker. Conventional diagram of a typical revolving biological contactor ( RBC ) . The treated wastewater clarifier/settler is non included in the diagram.ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORSRevolving biological contactors ( RBCs ) are mechanical secondary intervention systems, which are robust and capable of defying rushs in organic burden. RBCs were foremost installed in Germany in 1960 and have since been developed and refined into a dependable operating unit. The revolving discs back up the growing of bacteriums and micro-organisms nowadays in the sewerage, which break down and brace organic pollutants. To be successful, micro-organisms need both O to populate and nutrient to turn. Oxygen is obtained from the ambiance as the discs rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the revolving phonograph record in the sewerage. Effluent from the RBC is so passed through concluding clarifiers where the microorganisms in s uspension settee as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier for farther intervention. A functionally similar biological filtering system has become popular as portion of place fish tank filtration and purification. The fish tank H2O is drawn up out of the armored combat vehicle and so cascaded over a freely whirling corrugated fiber-mesh wheel before go throughing through a media filter and back into the fish tank. The whirling mesh wheel develops a biofilm coating of micro-organisms that feed on the suspended wastes in the fish tank H2O and are besides exposed to the ambiance as the wheel rotates. This is particularly good at taking waste.MEMBRANE BIOREACTORSMembrane bioreactors ( MBR ) combine activated sludge intervention with a membrane liquid-solid separation procedure. The membrane constituent uses low force per unit area microfiltration or extremist filtration membranes and eliminates the demand for elucidation and third filtration. The membranes are typically immersed in the aeration armored combat vehicle ; nevertheless, some applications utilize a separate m embrane armored combat vehicle. One of the cardinal benefits of an MBR system is that it efficaciously overcomes the restrictions associated with hapless subsiding of sludge in conventional activated sludge ( CAS ) processes. The engineering permits bioreactor operation with well higher assorted spirits suspended solids ( MLSS ) concentration than CAS systems, which are limited by sludge subsiding. The procedure is typically operated at MLSS in the scope of 8,000-12,000A mg/L, while CAS are operated in the scope of 2,000-3,000A mg/L. The elevated biomass concentration in the MBR procedure allows for really effectual remotion of both soluble and particulate biodegradable stuffs at higher burden rates. Therefore increased sludge keeping times, normally transcending 15 yearss, guarantee complete nitrification even in highly cold conditions.SECONDARY SEDIMENTATIONThe concluding measure in the secondary intervention phase is to settle out the biological floc or filter stuff through a sec ondary clarifier and to bring forth sewage H2O incorporating low degrees of organic stuff and suspended affair.TERTIARY TREATMENTThe intent of third intervention is to supply a concluding intervention phase to raise the outflowing quality before it is discharged to the receiving environment ( sea, river, lake, land, etc. ) . More than one third intervention procedure may be used at any intervention works. If disinfection is practiced, it is ever the concluding procedure. It is besides called â€Å" outflowing shining. †FiltrationSand filtration removes much of the residuary suspended affair. Filtration over activated C, besides called C surface assimilation, removes residuary toxins.LAGOONINGLagooning provides colony and farther biological betterment through storage in big semisynthetic pools or lagunas. These lagunas are extremely aerophilic and colonisation by native macrophytes, particularly reeds, is frequently encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphni a and species of Rotifera greatly assist in intervention by taking all right particulates.NUTRIENT REMOVALEffluent may incorporate high degrees of the foods N and P. Excessive release to the environment can take to a physique up of foods, called eutrophication, which can in bend encourage the giantism of weeds, algae, and blue-green algaes ( bluish green algae ) . This may do an algal bloom, a rapid growing in the population of algae. The algae Numberss are unsustainable and finally most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteriums uses up so much of O in the H2O that most or all of the animate beings die, which creates more organic affair for the bacteriums to break up. In add-on to doing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate imbibing H2O supplies. Different intervention procedures are required to take N and P.NITROGEN REMOVALThe remotion of N is effected through the biological oxidization of N from ammonium hydroxide to nitrate ( nitrificat ion ) , followed by denitrification, the decrease of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the ambiance and therefore removed from the H2O. Nitrification itself is a two-step aerophilic procedure, each measure facilitated by a different type of bacteriums. The oxidization of ammonium hydroxide ( NH3 ) to nitrite ( NO2a?’ ) is most frequently facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. ( nitroso mentioning to the formation of a nitroso functional group ) . Nitrite oxidization to nitrate ( NO3a?’ ) , though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. ( nitro mentioning the formation of a nitro functional group ) , is now known to be facilitated in the environment about entirely by Nitrospira spp. Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to promote the appropriate biological communities to organize. It is facilitated by a broad diverseness of bacteriums. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to cut down N, but the activated sludge procedure ( if designed good ) can make the occupation the most easy. Since denitrification is the decrease of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an negatron giver is needed. This can be, depending on the effluent, organic affair ( from fecal matters ) , sulfide, or an added giver like methyl alcohol.PHOSPHORUS REMOVALPhosphorus remotion is of import as it is a confining food for algae growing in many fresh H2O systems. ( For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Nutrient remotion ) . It is besides peculiarly of import for H2O reuse systems where high P concentrations may take to fouling of downstream equipment such as rearward osmosis. Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a procedure called enhanced biological P remotion. In this procedure, specific bacterium, called polyphosphate roll uping beings ( PAOs ) , are selectively enriched and roll up big measures of P within their cells ( up to 20 per centum of their mass ) . When the biomass enriched in these bacteriums is separated from the treated H2O, these biosolids have a high fertiliser value. Phosphorus remotion can besides be achieved by chemical precipitation, normally with salts of Fe ( e.g. ferrous chloride ) , aluminium ( e.g. alum ) , or lime. This may take to inordinate sludge production as hydrated oxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical P remotion requires significantly smaller equipment footmark than biological remotion, is easier to run and is frequently more dependable than biological P remotion. Another method for P remotion is to utilize farinaceous laterite. Once removed, P, in the signifier of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill or resold for usage in fertiliser.DisinfectionThe intent of disinfection in the intervention of waste H2O is to well cut down the figure of micro-organisms in the H2O to be discharged back into the environment. The effectivity of disinfection depends on the quality of the H2O being treated ( e.g. , cloud cover, pH, etc. ) , the type of disinfection being used, the bactericidal dose ( concentration and clip ) , and other environmental variables. Cloudy H2O will be treated less successfully, since solid affair can screen organisms, particularly from ultraviolet visible radiation or if contact times are low. By and large, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effectual disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, Cl, ultraviolet visible radiation, or Na hypochlorite. Chloramine, which is used for imbibing H2O, is non used in waste H2O intervention becaus e of its continuity. Chlorination remains the most common signifier of waste H2O disinfection in North America due to its low cost and long-run history of effectivity. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residuary organic stuff can bring forth chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual Cl or chloramines may besides be capable of chlorinating organic stuff in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residuary Cl is toxic to aquatic species, the treated wastewater must besides be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexness and cost of intervention. Ultraviolet ( UV ) light can be used alternatively of Cl, I, or other chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated H2O has no inauspicious consequence on beings that subsequently devour it, as may be the instance with other methods. UV radiation causes harm to the familial construction of bacteriums, viruses, and other pathogens, doing them incapable of reproduction. The cardinal disadvantages of UV disinfection are the demand for frequent lamp care and replacing and the demand for a extremely treated wastewater to guarantee that the mark micro-organisms are non shielded from the UV radiation ( i.e. , any solids nowadays in the treated wastewater may protect micro-organisms from the UV visible radiation ) . In the United Kingdom, UV visible radiation is going the most common agencies of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of Cl in chlorinating residuary organics in the effluent and in chlorinating organics in the receiving H2O. Some sewerage intervention s ystems in Canada and the US besides use UV visible radiation for their outflowing H2O disinfection. Ozone ( O3 ) is generated by go throughing O ( O2 ) through a high electromotive force possible resulting in a 3rd O atom going attached and organizing O3. Ozone is really unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic stuff it comes in contact with, thereby destructing many infective micro-organisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than Cl because, unlike Cl which has to be stored on site ( extremely toxicant in the event of an inadvertent release ) , ozone is generated onsite as needed. Ozonation besides produces fewer disinfection byproducts than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone coevals equipment and the demands for particular operators.ODOUR CONTROLSmells emitted by sewerage intervention are typically an indicant of an anaerobic or â€Å" infected † status. Early phases of processing will be given to bring forth fetid gases, with H sulphide being most common in bring forthing ailments. Large procedure workss in urban countri es will frequently handle the smells with C reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, little doses of Cl, or go arounding fluids to biologically capture and metabolise the objectionable gases. Other methods of odour control exist, including add-on of Fe salts, H peroxide, Ca nitrate, etc. to pull off H sulphide degrees.Package Plants AND BATCH REACTORSTo utilize less infinite, dainty hard waste and intermittent flows, a figure of designs of intercrossed intervention workss have been produced. Such workss frequently combine at least two phases of the three chief intervention phases into one combined phase. In the UK, where a big figure of effluent intervention workss serve little populations, bundle workss are a feasible option to constructing a big construction for each procedure phase. In the US, bundle workss are typically used in rural countries, main road remainder Michigans and dawdler Parkss. One type of system that combines secondary intervention and colony is the sequencing batch reactor ( SBR ) . Typically, activated sludge is assorted with natural entrance sewerage, and so assorted and aerated. The settled sludge is run away and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the headworks. SBR workss are now being deployed in many parts of the universe. The disadvantage of the SBR procedure is that it requires a precise control of timing, blending and aeration. This preciseness is typically achieved with computing machine controls linked to detectors. Such a complex, delicate system is unsuited to topographic points where controls may be undependable, ill maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent. Extended aeration bundle workss use separate basins for aeration and subsiding, and are slightly larger than SBR workss with decreased timing sensitiveness. Package workss may be referred to every bit high charged or low charged. This refers to the manner the biological burden is processed. In high charged systems, the biological phase is presented with a high organic burden and the combined floc and organic stuff is so oxygenated for a few hours before being charged once more with a new burden. In the low charged system the biological phase contains a low organic burden and is combined with flocculate for longer times.SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSALThe sludges accumulated in a effluent intervention procedure must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effectual mode. The intent of digestion is to cut down the sum of organic affair and the figure of disease-causing micro-organisms present in the solids. The most common intervention options include anaerobiotic digestion, aerophilic digestion, and composting. Incineration is besides used albeit to a much lesser grade. Sludge intervention depends on the sum of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most frequently applied to small-scale workss with aerophilic digestion for mid sized operations, and anaerobiotic digestion for the larger-scale operations.ANAEROBIC DIGESTIONAnaerobic digestion is a bacterial procedure that is carried out in the absence of O. The procedure can either be thermophilic digestion, in which sludge is fermented in armored combat vehicles at a temperature of 55A °C, or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36A °C. Though leting shorter keeping clip ( and therefore smaller armored combat vehicles ) , thermophilic digestion is more expensive in footings of energy ingestion for heating the sludge. Anaerobic digestion is the most common ( mesophilic ) intervention of domestic sewerage in infected armored combat vehicles, which usually retain the sewerage from one twenty-four hours to two yearss, cut downing the BOD by approximately 35 to 40 per centum. This decrease can be increased with a combination of anaerobiotic and aerophilic intervention by put ining Aerobic Treatment Units ( ATUs ) in the infected armored combat vehicle. One major characteristic of anaerobiotic digestion is the production of biogas ( with the most utile constituent being methane ) , which can be used in generators for electricity production and/or in boilers for warming intents.AEROBIC DIGESTIONAerobic digestion is a bacterial procedure happening in the presence of O. Under aerophilic conditions, bacteriums quickly consume organic affair and change over it into C dioxide. The operating costs used to be characteristically much greater for aerophilic digestion because of the energy used by the blowers, pumps and motors needed to add O to the procedure. Aerobic digestion can besides be achieved by utilizing diffuser systems or jet aerators to oxidise the sludge.COMPOSTINGComposting is besides an aerophilic procedure that involves blending the sludge with beginnings of C such as sawdust, straw or wood french friess. In the presence of O, bacterium digest both the effluent solids and the added C beginning and, in making so, produce a big sum of heat.IncinerationIncineration of sludge is less common because of air emanations concerns and the auxiliary fuel ( typically natural gases or fuel oil ) required to fire the low calorific value sludge and zap residuary H2O. Stepped multiple fireplace incinerators with high abode clip and fluidized bed incinerators are the most common systems used to burn effluent sludge. Co-firing in municipal waste-to-energy workss is on occasion done, this option being less expensive presuming the installations already exist for solid waste and there is no demand for subsidiary fuel.Chapter THREETERTIARY TREA TMENT3.1 SLUDGE DISPOSALWhen a liquid sludge is produced, farther intervention may be required to do it suited for concluding disposal. Typically, sludges are thickened ( dewatered ) to cut down the volumes transported off-site for disposal. There is no procedure which wholly eliminates the demand to dispose of biosolids. There is, nevertheless, an extra measure some metropoliss are taking to superheat sludge and change over it into little pelletized granules that are high in N and other organic stuffs. In New York City, for illustration, several sewerage intervention workss have dewatering installations that use big extractors along with the add-on of chemicals such as polymer to farther take liquid from the sludge. The removed fluid, called centrate, is typically reintroduced into the effluent procedure. The merchandise which is left is called â€Å" bar † and that is picked up by companies which turn it into fertilizer pellets. This merchandise is so sold to local husbandm ans and sod farms as a dirt amendment or fertiliser, cut downing the sum of infinite required to dispose of sludge in landfills. Much sludge arising from commercial or industrial countries is contaminated with toxic stuffs that are released into the cloacas from the industrial procedures. Elevated concentrations of such stuffs may do the sludge unsuitable for agricultural usage and it may so hold to be incinerated or disposed of to landfill.3.2 TREATMENT IN THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENTMany procedures in a effluent intervention works are designed to mime the natural intervention processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural H2O organic structure or the land. If non overloaded, bacteriums in the environment will devour organic contaminations, although this will cut down the degrees of O in the H2O and may significantly alter the overall ecology of the receiving H2O. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminations, and the Numberss of disea se-causing micro-organisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation or exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, in instances where the receiving environment provides a high degree of dilution, a high grade of effluent intervention may non be required. However, recent grounds has demonstrated that really low degrees of specific contaminations in effluent, including endocrines ( from animate being farming and residue from human hormonal contraceptive method methods ) and man-made stuffs such as phthalates that mimic endocrines in their action, can hold an unpredictable inauspicious impact on the natural biology and potentially on worlds if the H2O is re-used for imbibing H2O. [ 21 ] In the US and EU, uncontrolled discharges of effluent to the environment are non permitted under jurisprudence, and rigorous H2O quality demands are to be met. ( For demands in the US, see Clean Water Act. ) A important menace in the coming decennaries will be the increasin g uncontrolled discharges of effluent within quickly developing states.3.3 SEWAGE TREATMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIESFew dependable figures on the portion of the effluent collected in cloacas that is being treated in the universe exist. In many developing states the majority of domestic and industrial effluent is discharged without any intervention or after primary intervention merely. In Latin America about 15 % of gathered effluent base on ballss through intervention workss ( with varying degrees of existent intervention ) . In Venezuela, a below mean state in South America with regard to wastewater intervention, 97 per centum of the state ‘s sewerage is discharged natural into the environment. In a comparatively developed Middle Eastern state such as Iran, Tehran ‘s bulk of population has wholly untreated sewerage injected to the metropolis ‘s groundwater. However now the building of major parts of the sewerage system, aggregation and intervention, in Tehran is ab out complete, and under development, due to be to the full completed by the terminal of 2012. In Israel, approximately 50 per centum of agricultural H2O use ( entire usage was 1 billion three-dimensional meters in 2008 ) is provided through reclaimed cloaca H2O. Future programs call for increased usage of treated cloaca H2O every bit good as more desalinization workss.

Iran Awakening

Jessica Muhr May 2nd, 2012 History of the Middle East â€Å"Iran Awakening† â€Å"One Woman’s Journey to Reclaim Her Life and Country† This book, â€Å"Iran Awakening†, is a novel written by Nobel laureate Shirin Ebadi. Ebadi weaves the story of her life in a very personal and unique way, telling the account of the overthrow of the shah and the establishment of a new, religious fundamentalist regime in which opposition to the government are imprisoned, tortured, and murdered.By simply reading the Prologue, one can see the love Ebadi has for Iran and her people. This love that Ebadi has for the oppressed of Iran is a theme that appears throughout the book and seems to be a large factor behind her drive to stand up for those who cannot stand up for themselves. In the first chapter, Ebadi recounts her childhood from her birth on June 21st, 1947 in Hamedan, to her childhood in Tehran. Something that may come as a surprise to a reader was the equality between m ale and female in Ebadi’s home.This equality, however, was not common in most Iranian households, â€Å"Male children enjoyed an exalted status, spoiled and cosseted†¦ They often felt themselves the center of the family’s orbit†¦ Affection for a son was an investment†, says Ebadi. In Iranian culture, it was considered natural for a father to love his son more than his daughter. In Ebadi’s home, though, she describes her parent’s affections, attentions, and discipline as equally distributed.This equality in the home seems to play a large role in creating the strong, determined woman Ebadi would come to be, â€Å"My father’s championing of my independence, from the play yard to my later decision to become a judge, instilled a confidence in me that I never felt consciously, but came to regard as my most valued inheritance. † (Ebadi, 12). One may also find it interesting that as a child, Ebadi did not know anything of politics; until the coup d'etat of 1953. On August 19th, 1953, the beloved Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh was toppled in a coup d’etat.Ebadi says that, as children, this news meant nothing. But the adults could see what Ebadi, at the time, could not. The book makes it clear that, to those of Iran who were not paid to think otherwise, Mossadegh was revered as a nationalist hero and the father of Iranian independence for his bold move of nationalizing Iran’s oil industry which had been, until then, controlled by the West. Therefore, it was obvious that this was the beginning of a vast change for Iran. Before the coup, Ebadi’s father, a longtime supporter of the prime minister, had advanced to become minister of agriculture.In this new regime, Ebadi’s father was forced out of his job, fated to languish in lower posts for the rest of his career. This was what caused a silence of all things political in the Ebadi home. Entering law school in 1965 was a â€Å"turning point for me†, says Ebadi. The vast interest in Iran’s politics was shocking to her after coming from a home in which politics were never spoken of. After toying with the idea of studying political science, Ebadi decided on pursuing a judgeship; which is exactly what she did. In March of 1970, at the age of twenty-three, Ebadi became a judge.In 1975, after 6 months of getting to know each other Ebadi married Javad Tavassoni. Her husband, unlike many Iranian men, coped well with her professional ambitions. In the autumn of 1977, there was, what Ebadi describes as, a â€Å"shift in the streets of Tehran†. The shah’s regime was trying to reduce the power of the judiciary by setting up the ‘Mediating Council’, an extrajudicial outfit that would have allowed cases to be judged outside of the formal justice system. Some of the justices wrote a protest letter arguing against the council, demanding that all cases had to be tried before a court of law .This was the first collective action taken by the judges against the shah. Ebadi signed the letter. In January of 1978, President Jimmy Carter arrived in Tehran, Iran and described it as an â€Å"island of stability†, something he later came to regret. Not long after President Carter’s statement, a newspaper article aggressively attacking Khomeini inspired a revolt among the people of Iran, calling for his [Khomeini’s] return; the police shot into the crowd and killed many men. By the summer of 1978, protests had grown larger, making it impossible to avoid them. In early August, a crowded cinema in Abadan was burned to the round. This horrific event burned 400 people alive. The shah blamed this event on religious conservatives; Khomeini accused the SAVAK, the regime’s secret police, which was a force of legendary brutality against the government’s opponents. This tragedy pushed many Iranians against the shah. They now realized that the shah was no t merely an American puppet. Ebadi herself says that she was ‘drawn’ to the opposition. She says that it did not seem a contradiction for her, an educated professional woman, to back it (Ebadi, 33). She had no idea that she was backing her own eventual defeat.Ebadi uses something close to irony as she describes a morning when she and several judges and officials stormed into the minister of justice’s office. The minister was not there, instead a startled elder judge sat behind the desk. â€Å"He looked up at us in amazement and his gaze halted when he saw my face. â€Å"You! You of all people, why are you here? † he asked, bewildered and stern. â€Å"Don’t you know that you’re supporting people who will take away your job if they come to power? † â€Å"I’d rather be a free Iranian than an enslaved attorney,† I retorted boldly, self-righteous to the core. (Ebadi, 34) On January 16th, 1979, the shah fled Iran, ending two m illennia of rule by Persian kings. The streets were over-crowded with euphoric citizens, Ebadi herself being one of them. On February 1st, 1979, Khomeini returned to Iran. For about a month, the country of Iran hung in the balance. In most of the cities an emergency military had gone into immediate effect and Khomeini had ordered people to go back into their homes by nightfall with the instruction to go onto their roof at 9pm and scream, Allaho akbar, â€Å"God is greatest†.On February 11th, Khomeini exhorted people to defy the 4pm curfew the military had imposed by coming out into the streets. Ebadi remembers going into the streets, hearing sounds of the gunshots echoing, and taking in the frenzied scene of emotion. The next day, the 22nd of Bahman on the Iranian calendar, the military surrendered and the prime minister fled the country. The country rejoiced, including Ebadi herself. She says, looking back, she has to laugh at the feeling of pride that washed over her for it took scarcely a month for her to realize that she had willingly participated in her own defeat. Ebadi, 38) Merely days after the revolution’s victory, a man named Fathollah Bani-Sadr was appointed provisional overseer of the Ministry of Justice. Expecting praise from this man, Ebadi was shocked when he said, â€Å"Don’t you think that out of respect for our beloved Imam Khomeini, who has graced Iran with his return, it would be better if you covered your hair? † This headscarf â€Å"invitation† was the first in a long string of restraints on the women of Iran. After being away for less than a month, Ebadi could already see the changes that had taken place in Tehran. The streets were renamed after Shia imams, martyred clerics, and Third World heroics of an anti-imperial struggle. † (Ebadi, 41) Her fellow co-workers, male and female, were dirty and smelled. The bow tie had been banned, being â€Å"deemed a symbol of the West’s evils, smelling of cologne signaled counterrevolutionary tendencies, and riding to the ministry car to work was evidence of class privilege† (Ebadi 42). Rumors spread that Islam barred women from being judges. Ebadi was the most distinguished female judge in all of Tehran.So, upon hearing these rumors, she tried to counter her worries with her connections; but even this small comfort proved to be in vain. In the final days of 1979, Ebadi was effectively stripped of her judgeship. She stubbornly stood, though six months pregnant, as the committee flippantly tossed a sheet of paper at her and said, â€Å"Show up to the research office when you’re done with your vacation†, her ‘vacation’ being her maternity leave. The men then began to talk about her as though she was not there, saying things like, â€Å"Without even starting at the research office, she wants a vacation! † another said, â€Å"They’re disorganized! and another, â€Å"They’re so u nmotivated; it’s clear they don’t want to be working! † †¦ The point Ebadi was trying to make is clear by the telling of these statements. Most men, especially those in the government, had lost what little respect they had previously held for women prior to the Revolution. That much, at least, seemed very clear. The post-Revolution’s effect on women was a grim one. As Ebadi read in a newspaper piece titled â€Å"Islamic Revolution†, â€Å"the life of a woman’s was now half that of a man (for instance, if a car hit both on the street, the cash compensation due to the woman’s family was half of that due the man’s), a oman’s testimony in court as a witness now counted only half as much as that of a man’s; a woman had to ask her husband permission to divorce. The drafters of the penal code had apparently consulted the seventh century for legal advice. † (Ebadi, 51). Ebadi’s head pounded with rage as she read this news. â€Å"The grim statues that I would spend the rest of my life fighting stared back at me from the page†, she writes. One effect of the new Islamic penal code was the imbalance it caused within Ebadi’s marriage. â€Å"The day Javad and I married each other, we joined our lives together as two equals†, she writes. But under these laws, he stayed a person and I became a chattel. They permitted him to divorce me at will, take custody of our future children, and acquire three wives and stick them in the house with me. † (Ebadi, 53). Ebadi knew her husband had no intentions of putting this new law to use, but she still could not accept the distraction the imbalance between them was causing her. At length, Ebadi came up with a solution: within the course of the next morning, her and her husband drove to the local notary where her husband readily signed a postnuptual agreement.This granted Ebadi the right to divorce her husband without permissi on, as well as primary custody of their children in the event of a separation. â€Å"Why are you doing this? † the astonished notary asked [Javad]. â€Å"My decision is irrevocable, â€Å" Javad replied. â€Å"I want to save my life. † This eased Ebadi’s feeling of unrest greatly, her and her husband were equals again, but a small part of her was still at unease. â€Å"After all, I couldn’t drag all the men of Iran down to the notary, could I? † (Ebadi, 54). September 22nd, 1980 marked the day that Saddam Hussein launched a full-blown invasion on Iran.Though the popular discontent with the revolution had by no means abated: as Ebadi mentions, during the war, â€Å"the newspapers still had long lists of the executed, all the former regime’s officials and counterrevolutionaries who had been shot or hung, and sometimes pages filled with macabre photos of gallows and dead bodies. † Despite all of this, the people went on, just as they h ad through the upheaval after the revolution. In short, the decade after the revolution was one filled with much strife, war, and repression.This strife first became personal to Ebadi in the form of the political imprisonment and murder of her brother-in-law Fuad at the young age of 24. â€Å"Fuad’s death made me even more obstinate†, she writes. â€Å"We had been told not to discuss his death with anyone, so I talked about his execution night and day. In taxis, at the corner shop, in line for bread, I would approach perfect strangers and tell them about this sweet boy who was sentenced to twenty years in prison for selling newspapers, and then executed. † (Ebadi, 89)This tragic event in Ebadi’s life, the hot outrage that it made her feel, is remembered as the spark which would lead to her return to legal practice in the 1990’s. Things had, of course, continued to happen since Fuad’s death in the fall of 1988. In 1989, Khomeini had died, the komitehs harsh, unnecessary punishments grew more serious and frequent: Ebadi writes of one instance in which her friend’s fiance is whipped 80 times with no legal grounds whatsoever. The extreme laws against women grew more and more severe.When Ebadi was arrested for the first time (for a crime of wardrobe), she mentions an elderly woman who was arrested for the â€Å"crime† of wearing slippers. Yet over time, it again â€Å"became fashionable for the daughters of Traditional families to attend college†, Ebadi writes. â€Å"Throughout the nineties, the number of women with college degrees rose steadily, and eventually the women began to outnumber the men in universities by a small margin. † This new wave of educated women emerging from Iran created a people that was no longer content to slip back into their old, traditional roles in the home.This new attitude was often met by extreme clashes within the family. Ebadi writes of one such woman who, upon re questing a divorce from her husband, was refused by her father. Facing a lifetime of unhappiness, the woman doused herself in gasoline and set herself ablaze. In 1992, Ebadi again began practicing law, this time exclusively taking on pro bono cases. She pored over religious texts, attempting to gain sufficient knowledge to argue against particular interpretations that would claim that, within Islam, discriminatory interpretations were to be made.Ebadi began to take on only the cases of women and children, for these were the ones who were constantly at the mercy of a sick, twisted government. Ebadi took on many cases; one was that of the family of Zahra Kanzemi, an Iranian journalist who had been killed in police custody in 2003. Another was that of a student who was beaten to death by paramilitaries during a 1999 protest; Ebadi herself was imprisoned during the course of this case. While digging through the paperwork for a case representing the children of a couple who had been slai n in their home, Ebadi stumbled across the official authorization of her own assassination.The response Ebadi has to this shocking information was one of the major instances that. I believe, greatly endears her to the reader as an extremely brace and powerful woman. â€Å"I wasn’t scared, really, nor was I angry†, she writes. Instead, Ebadi simply wanted to know why. One thing that is truly unique about Ebadi is the way in which she writes about her life choices. She writes about them as if they were natural, obvious, and just the thing anyone would have done in her place. In reality, this is not so.Many others around Ebadi had the education and ability to make the same choices that Ebadi had made, but they did not, some even emigrating during the Iran-Iraq war. For Ebadi, patriotic to the core, the only choice was to stay. She has a love for her country that defies the instability and repression the government tries to place upon her. Ebadi knows, deep within herself, that the government is not the country. The only moral choice she could live with was to fight injustice with law; the very law the injustices claimed themselves to be. Following the ‘Reform Era’, you can see Ebadi breathe a huge sigh of relief.The years of constant anxiousness over everything, even her girl’s birthday parties, were behind her. The days when young people would be whipped for venturing into the mountains together, women would be detained or lashed for simply wearing a smudge of makeup or nail-polish, or for wearing any color clothing besides navy or black tones, were happily retired. Moderate President Khatami sought to pull back the system’s interference in the people’s private lives, but as Ebadi states, â€Å"President Khatami deserves only a measure of credit for this shift.Really it was because my daughters’ uncowed generation started fighting back, and, through the force of their sheer numbers and boldness, made it unf easible for the state to impose itself as before. † This book was, in my opinion, a fantastic portrait of a life lived in truth. It was a delight to see how Ebadi’s simple courage and outright stubbornness made a vast difference in the lives of many, even in the face of extreme adversity, like her own possible assassination. In conclusion, I will once again quote Ebadi, as she articulates the dignity of the reform movement within Iran. It so happened that I believed in the secular separation of religion and government because, fundamentally, Islam, like any religion, is subject to interpretation. It can be interpreted to oppress women or interpreted to liberate them†¦ I am a lawyer by training, and know only too well the permanent limitations of trying to enshrine inalienable rights in sources that lack fixed terms and definitions. But I am also a citizen of the Islamic Republic, and I know the futility of approaching the question any other way.My objective is not to vent my own political sensibilities but to push for a law that would save a family like Leila's† — a child who was raped and murdered — â€Å"from becoming homeless in their quest to finance the executions of their daughter's convicted murderers. If I'm forced to ferret through musty books of Islamic jurisprudence and rely on sources that stress the egalitarian ethics of Islam, then so be it. Is it harder this way? Of course it is. But is there an alternative battlefield? Desperate wishing aside, I cannot see one. † – Shirin Ebadi

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Presidential Campaign Ads Essay Presidential campaign commercials are truly an efficient means to persuade voters to give their full support of the candidates. Aside from posters and town-to-town campaigns, these political commercials give additional projection to the candidates and also influence the people’s mind to win their ballots. On the site’s examples, the presidential candidates’ ads were somewhat similar to each other. They exhibit the candidates’ short biography, their visions and missions. Despite the soaring price needed to produce these ads, politicians still prefer these kinds of campaign paraphernalia because almost all households have televisions. These commercials are successful, given that the candidate with the more accurate and understandable ad would most likely make it to the presidential throne. The 1984 Presidential Commercial The 1984 ads were effective on Reagan’s campaign for presidency. Along with his undisputed public appeal, he was able to win the votes of his countrymen. The ad’s themes, â€Å"Prouder, Stronger and Better,†, for example, signified Reagan’s commitment to develop the country more, fulfill his citizens’ pleas and to continue his unfinished tasks since it was his second term. With these ads, people would surely be convinced of Reagan’s instincts on political ethics. Reagan, who was also referred as the â€Å"Teflon President† because of his viable abilities in resolving national problems, made a record for having one of the landslide wins in the election since 1936. On the other hand, the opposition, which was led by Vice President Mondale, experienced turmoil during his campaign for presidency. Aside for his unproven charisma, his campaign tactics were also unenviable which caused him his downfall and his chance to sit on the presidential throne. His ads were nothing compared to Reagan’s. They were not that understandable and accurate.

Genetic Engineering Concepts and Applications

Genetic Engineering Concepts and Applications KIZITA BADU-POKU GENETIC ENGINEERING Genetic engineering has developed at a very dramatic rate. It was pioneered in 1973 by Stanley Chen and Herbert Boyer. They invented the technique of DNA cloning, which allowed genes to be transplanted between different biological species. Their discovery signalled the birth of genetic engineering. As a result Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen received half million dollars for their efforts in invention and innovation. They further founded Genentech,Inc where Herbert Boyer became the director. Dunne and Eisenbeis (1969). Genetic Engineering involves extracting DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) from one organism and combining it with that of another organism to produce new hereditary traits to the organism receiving the donor’s DNA. It has been used for so many different purposes such as manipulation of embryos and cloning, Dunne and Eisenbeis (1969). In the field of animal science, recombinant protein in the form of genetically engineered bacteria is being used to increase milk production in lactating cows. Eennaam(2008). Commercial companies are deriving therapeutic proteins, such as monoclonal antibodies, from the milk of transgenic cows, goats, rabbits, and mice, and using them to administer drugs in treatment protocols for rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and other autoimmune disorders.Glenn(2013). For example, mice have been used in genetic engineering for biological and biomedical research and have generated a lot of vital information about human diseases.Alzheimers and eye diseases have been bio medically researched through transgenic animals including livestock species.It has also been extensively used to study animal diseases notably mad cow disease,Eennaam(2008). Genetically modified crops have used to produce vaccines and other medicines. For example, potatoes have been modified to produce edible vaccines against E. coli bacteria which causes diarrhoea.This allow cheap and easy distribution of the vaccine,Bioethics (2014). Crops can be genetically modified to contain additional nutrients that are lacking in the diets of many people, especially in developing countries. One of the examples is Golden rice, which has been modified to have high level of ÃŽ ²-carotene. Î’-carotene helps to prevent vitamin A deficiency. This disease causes child blindness and it affects 14 million children under the age of five according to Nuffield council on bioethics( ). A research says that half of the cotton grown in china in 2002 was genetically modified.This was done to kill the pests (bollworm) that devastates the cotton crops. Before then farmers used to apply toxins by spraying the cotton crops which caused a lot of health issues for the farmers who often applied the pesticides without any protective clothes on. The benefit of this modified cotton was: a reduction of pesticides use, increase in yields and profit and good health benefits for the farmers,Bioethics (2014). Furthermore, diseases, poor weather conditions could affect yields in crops. For example, during the winter, most crops cannot be grown in larger quantities due to poor weather conditions. Therefore genetically modified crops would be beneficial in this case. In addition to all these benefits, genetic engineering can be used to save endangered species such as the American Chestnut tree, which is currently being repopulated by Chinese-American chestnut hybrids- specifically engineered with a genetic resistance to the chestnut blight—the deadly fungus that nearly decimated native populations in the early 1900s,Glenn (2013). Researchers from Cornell University created a genetically modified human embryo which is believed to be the first modification of a human embryo. Through their research, the scientists said that modified embryos could be used to research human disease. If these embryos were allowed to developed, it can be used passed to prevent diseases. It might also be used for other reasons such as physical appearance, intellectual prowess and personality enhancements,Keim(2004). Below shows a diagram of the first genetically modified human embryo: Source: http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/05/the-first-genet/ Also one of the areas where genetic engineering has been used is in cloning. It’s the process of producing similar population of genetically identical organisms. Cloning has been used in plants, animals and human cells and tissues. One benefit of cloning human tissue is that it can be used to grow vital organs, which can be used to replace ailing organs. One example is the heart disease, if the heart of a patient becomes dysfunctional, an exact replica can simply be grown to replace it through cloning. Department of science and technology (2014) In 1997, artificial cloning was used to clone dolly the sheep, it was the first cloned animal. Producing animals that are genetically engineered can provide human products such as insulin or organs for transplant. Cloning animals can also be used for research purposes and to pursue basic knowledge about cell differentiation, BBC (2014). Genetic engineering is a testament of advances that science has made in biotechnology. Although the benefits to genetic engineering cannot be ignored; it carries with it some controversies and misgivings: about how the sick should be treated and how research should be conducted.Risks, safety and ethics has been at the forefront of these debates leading to a whole discipline of Bioethics,Bryant(2007). Ethical theories in genetic engineering involves recommending concepts of what is right and wrong and also basing it on moral diversity. In all what is right in one’s culture might be wrong in another and vice versa. There are different types of ethical theories: utilitarianism, situation ethics, discourse ethics and many others,Wikipedia (2014) Utilitarianism broadly supports the general well-being and not just the treatment and prevention of diseases. In the field of genetics, utilitarianism supports genetic testing, genetic selection of offspring that will lead to optimal benefits, gene therapy and genetic enhancement, Savulescu and Birks(2012). Savulescu and Birks (2012) outlined the following: according to utilitarianism, an action is right if, and only if it maximises well-being; utilitarianism entails that it is morally required to kill an innocent person if it promotes overall well-being; for a utilitarian, allowing a person to die or suffer when that could have been avoided is just as bad as directly inflicting suffering or killing the individual. Situation ethics is a moral decision based on love; which means desiring and acting to promote wellbeing of the individual or persons involved, Barn (2011).Moral judgments are decisions, not conclusions and decisions ought to be made situationally not prescriptively. In making these decisions the well-being of people, rather than love principles should suffice, BBC website archives. Discourse ethics is a communication centered framework where all the opinions of willing participants are equally important.Stasbury,(2009),outlined the following: in this ethics the principle of generalisation serves as a rule of argumentation which assumes that all participants involved in the discourse are rational, and able to reach the same reasonable judgment while accepting the consequences and side effects that may arise; for satisfaction of all affected individuals interests, only norms that are considered moral by all affected participants, and those involved in the discourse will be assumed valid. Churches and ethicists have various opposing views about what is right or not. Some churches like the Catholics, has publicly supported the adult and umbilical cord stem cell research and the church leaders were the first to applaud the discovery of the amniotic stem cells and to ask for further research. The church however opposes the embryonic stem cell because the preparation of the stem cells destroys the embryo which is against their beliefs and they view it as gravely immoral,(Peter Baron, march 2011). Consider the case of Euthanasia which involves the deliberate action to end or assist in ending the life of another person on compassionate grounds,Lavery et al,1997.Is Euthanasia morally right or wrong ?What will be the logical judgments of a utilitarian, a situation ethicist and a proponent of discourse ethics? A utilitarian will be a proponent of euthanasia as long as it will help relieve the patient of unbearable suffering or there is no hope medically for the terminally ill. In the case of situation ethics the conclusion of euthanasia can be twofold: the situation would be assessed on its merit, if there is a chance of prolonging life for a considerable length of time then a case may be made against euthanasia where as if there is no hope medically then a case could be made in favour of euthanasia. Proponents of discourse ethics may not reach any practical conclusion on euthanasia as there could be varying opinions on the case at hand.Pro-life participants in the group will object outright the idea of deliberate death. Because all opinions in a discourse ethics must be respected they may not be any consensual agreement on the decisions. All three ethical theories can lead to three contradicting views; however it can help provide a guiding framework for genetic engineering. Genetic Engineering has played a vital role in industrial biotechnology, agriculture and medicine but it also has its risks as well. In Agriculture, GM crops could compete or breed wild species which threatens biodiversity. Also some genes may escape and find their way into other members of the species or other species. Example is if herbicide-resistant genes found their way into weeds.Makula (2014). Also in medicine, drug testing on participants is still very crucial because lives are always at risk. As stated on US National library of medicine website, where an issue has generated a considerable debate since 1999, when an 18 year old Jesse Gelsinger died while he participated in a gene therapy trial at the University of Pennsylvania. It goes to show that with all the advances the world of science is making in genetic engineering it also carries with it a lot of risks. Conclusion It is obvious that genetic engineering presents both challenges and opportunities. In view of the various ethical issues involved in genetic engineering, there should be the need to understand beliefs and doctrines as this allows coexistence within and across societies, and prevents social conflict. A technology’s acceptance should not only be on technological soundness but on how it is perceived to be socially, politically, economically and morally feasible from the viewpoint of the wider society. An understanding of ethics helps determine what information is needed by society and how to deal with different opinions, Pockect K.No18 (2006). †God has given humankind a mandate to care for the earth and its resources, utilising them wherever feasible for the good of others†, noted Bryant(2007).There is a case for the use of genetic engineering in our world, ethics can define the limits of what should be acceptable for the greater good for the wider society. References Dunne and Eisenbeis(1969).Genetic Engineering. Available from: http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blgenetic.htm [Accessed: 28th, August,2014 Eenennam(2008).Genetically Engineered Animals: An Overview.  Available from:  http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/animalbiotech/Outreach/Genetically_engineered_animals_overview.pdf  [Acessed: 1st, September, 2014] Dunne and Eisenbeis(1969).Genetic Engineering. Available from: http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blgenetic.htm [Accessed: 28th, August,2014] Eenennam(2008).Genetically Engineered Animals: An Overview.  Available from:  http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/animalbiotech/Outreach/Genetically_engineered_animals_overview.pdf  [Acessed: 1st, September, 2014] Glenn (2013). Action Bioscience. Available from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotechnology/glenn.html  [Accessed: 3rd, September, 2014] Eenennam(2008).Genetically Engineered Animals: An Overview.  Available from:  http://animalscience.ucdavis.edu/animalbiotech/Outreach/Genetically_engineered_animals_overview.pdf  [Acessed: 1st, September, 2014] Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2014).Benefits of GM Crops. Available from: http://nuffieldbioethics.org/report/gm-crops-developing-countries-2/benefits-gm-crops-developing-countries/ [Accessed:28th, August, 2014] Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2014).Benefits of GM Crops. Available from: http://nuffieldbioethics.org/report/gm-crops-developing-countries-2/benefits-gm-crops-developing-countries/ [Accessed:28th, August, 2014] Glenn (2013). Action Bioscience. Available from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotechnology/glenn.html  [Accessed: 3rd, September, 2014] Keim (2008).First Genetically Modified Human Embryo. Available from: http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/05/the-first-genet/ [Accessed:29th , August, 2014] Department of science and technology. Public understanding of Biotechnology. Available from: http://www.pub.ac.za/factfiles/cloning.php [Accessed:28th , August, 2014] BBC (2014). Cloning Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/living_growing/cloningrev2.shtml [Accessed:29th , August , 2014] Wikipedia (2014). Ethics. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics [Accessed: 29th, August 2014] Julian Savulescu and David Birks(2012). Bioethics: Utilitarianism  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/.Published online: December 2012 Barn (2011). Christian Ethics. Available from: http://www.philosophicalinvestigations.co.uk/index.php?view=articlecatid=47%3Achristian-ethicsid=440%3Aapplying-christian-ethicsoption=com_contentItemid=54showall=1 [ Accessed:30th, September,2014] Peter baron published 18th march 2011 John Bryant(2007). Ethical issues in Genetic Modification.The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion Stansbury, J. (2009). Reasoned moral agreement: Applying discourse ethics within organizations.Business ethics quarterly,19(1), 33-56. Situation Ethics.BBC.Retrieved on 12th,September,2014 at 6pm.http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/situation_1.shtml Makula Center of Applied Ethics (2014). Available from: http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/medical/conference/presentations/genetically-modified-foods.html#sthash.weSwFf3C.dpuf [Accessed:5th, October, 2014] John Bryant(2007), Ethical Issues in genetic modification. Faraday Institute of Science and Religion. James V. Lawery,Bernard Dickens, Joseph Boyle, Peter Singer(1997). Bioethics for Clinicians: Euthanasia and assisted suicide, Canadian medical Association Journal, May 15, 1997;156(10)

John Adams Essays -- essays research papers

David McCullough. John Adams. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. 656 pp. David McCullough was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1933, and educated at Yale where he graduated with honors in English literature. McCullough lives in West Tisbury, Massachusetts with his wife, Rosalee Barnes McCullough. They have five children and fifteen grandchildren. He is the author of Truman, Brave Companions, Mornings on Horseback, The Path Between the Seas, The Great Bridge, and the Johnstown Flood. He has received the Pulitzer Prize (in 1993, for Truman), the Francis Parkman Prize, (this award promotes literary distinction in historical writing, and is presented annually for the best book in American history). He has also won the Los Angeles Times Book Award, and is twice winner of the National Book award, for history and biography. McCullough has lectured in all parts of the country and abroad, as well as at the White House, as part of the White House presidential lecture series. He is also one of few private citizens to be asked to speak before a joint session of C ongress. David McCullough has been an editor, essayist, teacher, lecturer, and familiar presence on public television- as host of Smithsonian World, The American Experience, and numerous documentaries including The Civil War and Napoleon. John Adams is a biography about the second president of the United States. McCullough originally set out to write a dual biography of Adams and Jefferson. David McCullough has successfully incorporated the life of Thomas Jefferson into this biography. The idea was to explore their interlocking lives and careers. The two men first met as fellow patriots united in the cause of independence in the mid-1770s. As fellow diplomats in Europe in the 1780s they became close friends. In the 1790s they became political rivals and didn’t speak to each other for more than ten years. They reconciled in their retirement years, and then launched into one of the great exchanges of letters in American history. They died on the same day- July 4th, 1826, fifty years after the Declaration of Independence. Though this began as a dual biography it quickly became an Adams biography. McCullough realized that after a year and one half of research that Adams was in every respect a more fully developed, three-dimensional, warm-blooded, and compelling character than Jefferson. McCullough wants his ... ...ams’s. I learned so much about the relationship between Abigail and John Adams. Their life together was a true love story. I also learned the contrasts between Adams and Jefferson. Jefferson was tall, lean, and youthful. Adams was short, stout, and eight years Jefferson’s senior. Adams kept no record of accounts, Jefferson, on the other hand, kept meticulous records, but the greatest difference between them was that Jefferson avoided conflict. He could not bring himself to argue with anyone, ever. In contrast, Adams embraced difficulty, conflict, and struggle. After reading this book I came away with a better understanding of the civil war, slavery, and other crucial issues facing America at that time. John Adams has given me an insatiable appetite to learn more about our founding fathers, I feel that I can never know enough about them. This was an absolutely fascinating book to read. I loved it! For me this was the history lesson that I needed. I enjoyed this book from a plain readers point of view; moreover I enjoyed the history lesson in rare form. David McCullough’s John Adams was, by far, the best written and most interesting book that I have ever read. (word count 1543)

Essay --

SUMMARY Amazon.com, Inc. (hereafter referred to as â€Å"Amazon†, â€Å"it†, â€Å"the business†, or â€Å"the company†), is an online retailer that has branched into content creation and web services. Its main competitors include retail giants Wal-mart and Target, as well as entertainment providers Netflix and Barnes and Nobel. Recently, it has found itself competing with technology giant Apple as ventures into cloud services. Amazon was incorporate in 1994 and was offered publically in 1999. It has grown rapidly into the world’s number one online retailer, with millions of products. To achieve this, Amazon has acquired a global network of distribution centers and used technology to provide consumers with access to the best products at the lowest rates. Amazon’s services have become integrated into the modern consumer’s demands for immediate (or near immediate) gratification and investors are highly optimistic about the company’s prospects. Amazon has recently been demonstrating growing revenues in a time where overall sales in the retail industry are growing much more slowly. However, this is not all that is important to an investor. While the company’s revenues are high, it reports losses as it continues to spend to expand rapidly. Investors should carefully analyze past financial statements to determine whether the growth rate in sales is sufficient to match the current expectations and market prices for the retail giant. Such an analysis will reveal that Amazon’s current method of operation plans for the company’s long term profitability, so the company may not be an ideal choice for the more short-term investor. Additionally, Amazon has increased its areas of operation by branching into content and web services and the investor should be aware... ...e Amazon its positive image in the eyes of consumers. Recently, much has come to light that shows less than stellar working conditions for Amazon’s employees. In December 2013, Amazon workers in Germany walked off of their jobs and went on strike claiming â€Å" We are people, not robots†. Claims across the world state that Amazon pays its workers in its distribution warehouses only a little more than the appropriate minimum wage for work that is more demanding than typical retail work. The BBC even found that working conditions at Amazon warehouses could be linked to higher rates of mental and physical defects. If Amazon does not provide better worker’s rights and benefits, it may lose its competitive advantage as employees turn to other employers. However, it is possible that this will just push Amazon to pursue technological improvements to replace human workers.

Voodoo Religion Essay examples -- Religious Religion Voodoo Research P

Voodoo Religion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Voodoo religion is one of the most, if not the most misconceived religions of our time. Often when Voodoo is mentioned, it is related to evil, black magic, devious sorcery, cannibalism, and harm. Although the Voodoo religion appears to the outsider as an illusion or falsehood, it has been an instrumental political force because it has helped the Haitians resist domination and form an identity of their own. Since the end of the 17th century, Haitian Voodoo has overcome every challenge it has been faced with and has endured. The religion is based on a polytheistic belief system and represents a significant portion of Haiti’s 8.3 million people. The engaging religion plays an important role in both the family and the community. Voodoo ceremonies allow participants to seek spiritual guidance, or help with their problems, making the religion a source of comfort. The main activity in Voodoo is the boundary between visible and invisible realities. Practitione rs believe that there are no accidents, everything affects something else, and the universe is all one. In Voodoo, reality and illusion are fused to make things happen. Voodoo cannot be explained.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Voodoo is a very promising religion. It offers comfort and support to practitioners while Haiti remains unstable. There is a strong sense of tradition, but it is a very unique sense of tradition. Voodoo has no formal dogma, no specific organization, and no written text. There is no right or wrong way to practice Voodoo. Because there was no formal history of Voodoo practitioners believed it was easier to form a bond with the supernatural world. Each individual has his/her own relationship with his or her specified god, and each relationship is unique. The religion is in the hands of the practitioner. People can choose how deep they wish to get involved in this religion. A practitioner of Voodoo decides for him or herself how to establish their personal bond with the supernatural. In comparison religions like Catholicism, have guidelines to follow and consequences for all your actions. Voodoo allowed Haiti to form an identity of its own. Voodoo has been instrumental in the survival of Haiti because of its individualistic way of thinking. It is important to keep in mind that Haiti has been, and continues to be one of the most impoverished nations is the world. The fact that Ha... ...on of the slaves of Haiti from who most black Haitians descended from. Philippe Casiera a Voodoo priest said, â€Å" In spite of our contribution to Haitian culture, we are still misunderstood and despised† (Okara, Origins of Voodoo). Voodoo helps and guides people who suffer and it serves as a comfort for those in need. Historically in Haiti Voodoo has and continues to be a very successful religion. Sources Cited Anderson, Michelle. â€Å"Authentic Voodoo is Synthetic.† The Drama Review Summer, 1982: 89-110. â€Å"Common Misconceptions About Vodoun† 20 May. http://pub47.bravenet.com/faq/show.php?usernum=3951612168&catid=104 Guynup, Sharon. â€Å"Haiti: Possessed by Voodoo.† National Geographic July. 2004. 20 May. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0707_040707_tvtaboovoodoo.html Hunte, Tracie. â€Å"UF professor: Haitian voodoo similar to western practices.† Alligator online 20 May. http://www.alligator.org/edit/issues/00-spring/000225/b08forum25.htm â€Å"Origins of Voodoo† 10 May. http://www.swagga.com/voodoo.htm Turlington, Shannon. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Voodoo. USA: Alpha, 2002. Webster’s Dictionary & thesaurus. â€Å"Voodoo.† New York: Shooting Star Press, 1995.